UC-NRLF 


^B    '^^    "^"^t. 


TFE 


BOOK   OF   COIVBiERCE 


BY 


SEA    AND    LAND, 

EXHIBITING  ITS  CONNECTION  ^^  ITH 

AGRICULTURE,  THE  ARTS,  A  sD  MANUFACTURES. 


TO  y'hl-.u  ARE  A^T'ED 


A  HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE, 

A  1     CHRONOLOGICAL      TABLE. 


I  PHILADELPHIA : 

\  URIAH  HUNT  &  SON,  U^M-  FOURTH  STREET, 

j  aNU    iK)R  SALE  BV   BOOKSELLERS    OENERAi  LY   J  HROUGUO'JT  THE   UNITED    STa 

\  ..  18.3(i. 


r 


N" 


J  I 


D 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


THE 

BOOK   OF   COI^IMERCE 

■'  BY  • 

SEA    AND    LAND, 

«• 

EXHIBITING  ITS  CONNECTION  WITH 

AGRICULTURE,  THE  ARTS,  AND   MANUFACTURES. 


TO  WHICH  ARE  ADDED 

A  HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE, 

\ND     A     CHRONOLOGICAL      TABLE. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
URIAH  HUNT  8c  SON,  44  N.  FOURTH  STREET, 

AND   FOR  SALE   BV   BOOKSELLERS   GENERALLY   THROUGHOUT   THE  UNITED   STATES. 


Ektered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1836,  by 

URIAH    HUNT, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


KITE   &   WALTON.   PRINTERS, 

No.  50,  North  Fourth  Street. 


PREFACE. 

There  are  few  words  of  more  extensive  signification  than  the 
word  CoxMMERCE.  If  a  person  will  visit  a  large  seaport,  crowded 
with  vessels  from  all  parts  of  the  earth,  and  consider  the  multitude 
of  articles  which  they  transport  across  the  ocean,  he  may  form  some 
vague  idea,  not  only  of  the  immense  value,  but  also  of  the  infinite 
variety  of  the  merchandise,  which  it  is  the  business  of  Commerce  to 
distribute  throughout  the  world. 

But  to  form  a  more  definite  conception  of  the  subject,  let  a 
person  pass  through  one  of  the  streets  in  Boston,  New  York,  or 
Philadelphia,  devoted  to  the  retail  trade.  Enter  for  instance  a  single 
shop,  devoted  to  one  class  of  goods; — how  great  is  the  variety!  If 
the  goods  are  groceries,  there  are  sugars  fit)m  Louisiana,  and  the 
West  Indies,  teas  from  China,  figs  from  Smyrna,  oranges  and  lemons 
from  Portugal,  whines  from  France,  pepper  and  spices  from  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific,  and  a  multitude  of  other  things,  some  from  one  hemi- 
sphere, and  some  from  the  other;  some  from  climes  where  the  sum* 
mer  never  ceases  to  shed  its  prolific  influences,  and  some  from  regions 
of  snow  and  frost,  where  winter  « holds  perpetual  sway : '  some  are 
sent  to  us  by  nations  or  tribes,  who  have  carried  the  arts  to  the  high- 
est pitch  of  perfection,  while  others  are  supplied  by  half  civilized 
men,  or  perhaps  by  wandering  savages. 


4  PREFACE. 

How  many  and  how  interesting  then,  are  the  topics  which  are 
suggested  by  a  history  of  the  articles  in  a  grocer's  shop  ?  If  we  pro- 
ceed further,  the  subject  only  expands,  and  grows  more  varied  and 
more  curious. 

This  little  book  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  leading- 
articles  of  commerce ;  including  an  account  of  their  mode  of  cultiva 
tion,  preparation,  or  manufacture ;  where  they  are  found ;  where  and 
to  what  extent  they  are  exported,  &.c.  It  embraces  a  description  of 
some  of  the  most  interesting  productions  of  the  animal,  mineral,  and 
vegetable  kingdom,  with  a  view  of  the  uses  to  which  man  has  turned 
them,  and  the  arts  by  which  they  are  thus  converted  to  the  purposes 
of  want  or  luxury.  From  the  foregoing  suggestions,  the  reader  will 
see  that  the  subject  is  of  great  extent  and  importance,  and  we  trust 
that  from  the  manner  it  is  treated  in  the  following  pages,  it  may 
prove  both  instructive  and  entertaining  to  the  youthful  reader. 

It  is  of  course  impossible,  in  a  volume  of  a  size  adapted  to  youth- 
ful reading,  to  give  extensive  accounts  of  a  great  variety  of  articles. 
We  have  chosen  a  medium,  and  sought  to  combine  a  good  degree  of 
particularity,  with  a  full  list  of  subjects.  If  some  descriptions  are 
thought  brief,  the  reader  will  consider  them  only  as  hints,  to  excite 
curiosity,  and  lead  to  further  investigation. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

IMPORTANCE   OF    COMMERCE ARTICLES 

OF  FOOD 

CHAPTER  II. 

ARTICLES  OF  FOOD Cowtihubd.    - 


CHAPTER  III. 

ARTICLES  OF  FOOD Continued. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

ARTICLES  OF  FOOD.— Continued. 

CHAPTER  V. 

SALT,  SPICES,  &c.  -  -  - 

CHAPTER  VI. 

TEA,  COFFEE,  &c.  -  -  - 

CHAPTER  VII 

CIDER,  BEER,  &c.  -  -  - 


Page 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


WINES. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

DISTILLED  SPIRITS.      - 

CHAPTER  X. 

ARTICLES  OF  CLOTHING.       - 

CHAPTER  XI., 

ARTICLES  OF  CLOTHING.— Continued. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

BILKS,  VELVETS,  &c. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

CARPETS,  HOSIERY,  &c. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


FURS,  &c.   - 


FEATHERS 


13 


21 


24 


26 


31 


32 


35 


37 


43 


47 


CHAPTER  XV 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

PERFUMES,  &c.     - 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

CHINA,  POTTERY  WARE,  &c. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

GLASS  WARE.       -  -  -  - 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

IVORY,  JEWELRY,  &c. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

PEARLS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES.  - 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

PRECIOUS  METALS.        -  -  - 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

USEFUL  METALS. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

USEFUL  METALS.— Continued. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


COAL. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

GRANITE,  MARBLE,  &c. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


WOODS. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

WOODS.— Continued. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

DRUGS,  MEDICINES,  &c. 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

WHALE  FISHERY. 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PRODUCTIONS.    - 


Pago 
54 

55 

5S 
61 


63 


69  ' 


63 


88 


90 


96 


100 


105 


109 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

MIS(^ELLANEOUS  PRODUCTIONS.-Coktikoed.  113 

CHAPTER  XXXn. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PRODUCTIONS.— Cowtiitobd.  116 

CHAPTER  XXXni. 

MODES  OF  CONVEYANCE.       -  -  -  120 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

MODES  OF  CONVEYANCE.— Continued. 


125 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

FACILITIES  FOR  PROSECUTING  COMMERCE.  130 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

BANKS,  tc  ....         135 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

DOCKS,  WHARVES.  TELEGRAPHS,  &c       -         137 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

CUSTOMS,  TARIFF   &c.    -  mt 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE.  -  -  14J 

CHAPTER  XL. 

HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE.— Co KTitroED.      -  151 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE.— Continued.       -         250 

CHAPTER  XLII 

HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE.— Continued.  161 

CHAPTER  XLIII. 

HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE  — Cowtiwuid  I6< 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  COMMERCE.-ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 


1.  I  am  sure  that  my  young  readers 
cannot  fail  to  be  interested  in  an  account 
of  that  extensive  branch  of  human  indus- 
try, which  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of 
the  comforts  wh'ch  they  enjoy  It  is 
by  our  intercourse  with  neighboring  and 
foreign  places,  that  most  of  the  common 
necessaries  of  life  are  now  obtained.  It 
has  been  said,  that  the  supper  of  the  poor- 
est artisan  has  cost  the  labor  of  many 
hundred  hands.  If  we  think  of  nothing 
but  the  tea  and  the  sugar,  this  may  be  fair- 
ly asserted.  For  consider  the  toil  of  those 
who  prepare  these  articles,  the  merchants 
by  whom  they  are  shipped,  the  sailors  who 
must  help  to  bring  them  to  our  shores,  not 
to  speak  of  the  carpenters,  blacksmiths, 
and  other  people  who  must  first  build  the 
vessel, — and  you  will  perceive  the  truth 
of  the  remark. 

2.  But  commerce  does  not  contribute  to 
our  bodily  wants  and  comforts  alone.  It 
has  an  immense  influence  upon  the  civil- 
isation and  mental  improvement  of  a  peo- 
ple. By  its  aid,  the  seeds  of  religion  and 
knowledge  are  scattered  over  the  globe  ; 
the  cause  of  science  is  strengthened  and 
advanced ;  and  the  researches  and  disco- 
veries of  great  men  of  every  nation  are 
brought  together  for  the  general  benefit 
and  good  of  mankind. 


Questions.  1 .  What  is  said  of  the  importance 
of  commerce  ?  2.  Its  effects  upon  civilisation  ? 
3.  Where  is  wheat  thought  to  have  been  origin- 


WHEAT. 

3.  This  important  article,  from  which  our 
daily  bread  is  prepared,  may  naturally  claim 
our  attention  first.  Africa  is  thought  to  be 
the  native  place  of  wheat ;  but  it  will  grow 
in  almost  any  climate.  In  Europe,  the 
grand  supply,  in  times  of  scarcity,  is  from 
Poland ;  and  the  principal  port  for  this 
trade  is  Dantzic,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Vistula,  in  the  Baltic.  Many  of  the  PoHsh 
nobles  have  vast  territorial  domains,  on 
which  grain  is  grown  in  such  abundance 
that  they  cannot  use  half  of  it ;  yet  they 
take  no  measures  to  dispose  of  this  super- 
fluity. If  the  English  suspect  a  want 
of  it,  they  send  to  Dantzic,  where  vast 
magazines  are  kept  constantly  full  of 
wheat ;  or  they  travel  up  the  country,  and 
bargain  for  so  much  as  they  find,  to  be 
sent  to  Dantzic. 
buy,  the  wheat 
lost. 

4.  Much  wheat  is  sent  to  Europe  and 
other  countries  from  North  America ;  but 
it  is  generally  exported  in  the  form  of 
flour.  The  soil  of  the  United  States  is 
well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  wheat ;  and 
the  states  of  Delaware,  Maryland,  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  produce  it  in  very 
great  quantities.  The  cultivation  of  it 
gives  employment  to  numerous  individu- 


But  if  no  one  comes  to 
is   scattered   about   and 


ally  produced  ?  What  country  of  Europe  affords 
the  grand  supply  ?  4.  What  is  said  of  the  ex 
portation  of  wheat  from  this  country?     What 


10 


BOCK    or    COMMERCE. 


als ;  and  thousands  of  acres  are  covered 
by  its  growth. 


5.  Sicily  was  long  the  granary  of  the 
Grecian  states,  and  afterwards  of  the  Ro- 
mans. When  the  Romans  had  conquered 
Egypt,  the  prolific  soil  of  that  country  sup- 
plied them.  Any  hinderance  in  these  sup- 
plies created  a  famine  at  Rome;  and  a 
sedition  among  the  populace  was  the  usual 
consequence. 

6.  The  ancients  fabled  that  the  god- 
dess Ceres  first  taught  men  to  sow  grain. 
She  came  from  Sicily.  Wheat  is  said 
to  be  her  daughter;  and  as  that  lies  so 
many  months  buried  in  the  earth,  the 
poets  imagined  that  Pluto,  god  of  the  in- 
fernal regions,  ran  away  with  her ;  though 
at  last  he  agreed  to  let  her  continue 
above  ground  all  the  summer  months. 
The  name  of  this  daughter  of  Ceres  was 
Proserpine. 

FLOUR. 

7.  Flour  is  the  meal  of  wheat  finely 
ground  and  sifted.  It  is  exported  in  barrels 
from  many  parts  of  the  United  States ;  and 
is  one  of  the  staple  commodities  of  the 
country.  Some  of  the  principal  -flour 
mills  are  those  of  Brandy  wine  in  Dela- 
ware and  of  Rochester  in  New  York  ; 
these  are  the  most  extensive,  but  there  are 
large  flour  mills  in  most  of  the  southern 
states.  Many  of  these  mills  are  so  con- 
states produce  it  in  the  largest  quantities?  5. 
What  is  said  of  Sicily  ?    6.  The  fable  of  the  an- 


trived  that  the  wheat  is  carried  by  ma- 
chinery to  one  of  the  upper  rooms  and 
there  ground;  it  then  falls  into  a  room 
below  and  is  sifted  or  bolted,  and  falling 
still  lower  is  received  into  the  barrels, 
and  there  packed  and  headed  ready  for 
shipping,  and  the  whole  process,  which 
formerly  occupied  a  considerable  time, 
is  now  by  the  aid  of  new  machinery, 
reduced  to  the  work  of  a  few  min- 
utes. 

MAIZE. 

8.  Indian  corn,  or  maize,  is  a  native  pro- 
duction of  North  America,  and  till  visited 
by  the  Europeans  it  was  the  main  depend- 
ence of  the  Indians  ibr  food.  They  were 
accustomed  to  boil  it,  and  eat  it  when  soft. 
They  have  now  learned  to  make  bread  of 
it.  Immense  quantities  of  this  corn  are 
raised  in  Ohio  and  other  of  the  western 
states.  Like  flour  it  is  ground,  and  vast 
quantities  of  it  are  shipped  as  corn  meal 
from  the  southern  to  the  northern  states. 
Corn  meal  is  not  however  so  great  an  ar- 
ticle of  commerce  as  flour,  as  it  is.  more 
liable  to  be  aflfected  by  heat,  and  rendered 
sour  and  unfit  for  use. 

BARLEY. 

9.  This  well  known  species  of  grain  is 
raised  in  great  quantities,  both  in  North 
America  and  Europe.  It  is  the  principal 
ingredient  of  beer  and  ale ;  and  all  sorts 
of  malt  liquor  are  extracted  from  it.  It  is 
also  tolerably  good  for  making  bread,  par- 
ticularly if  mixed  with  the  med  of  some 
other  grain.  More  than  thirty  million 
bushels  of  barley  are  annually  converted 
into  malt  in  Great  Britain. 

RICE. 

10.  Rice  is  a  plant  very  much  resembling 
wheat  in  shape,  color,  and  the  figure  of 
its  leaves.  The  stem  does  not  much  ex- 
ceed three  feet  in  height.  Rice  for  the 
most  part  requires  a  low  and  moist  soil 


cients  ?    7.  What  is  flour  ?    What  are  some  of 
the  principal  flour-mills  in  the  United  State*? 


ARTICLES    OF    FOOD. 


1) 


but  there  is  a  sort  grown  on  the  higher 
lands,  which  is  in  great  esteem. 

11.  In  China  the  rice  crop  is  of  great 
Importance ;  it  forms  the  principal  part  of 
the  food  of  the  inhabitants ;  and,  as  much 
©f  the  land  lies  flat  and  low  and  the  coun- 
try is  plentifully  intersected  by  canals,  it 
has  an  excellent  opportunity  for  irrigation. 
From  the  time  the  seed  is  sown,  till  it  is 
almost  ripe,  it  requires  the  fields  to  be 
r-overed  with  one  entire  sheet  of  water. 

12.  The  rivers  of  China  annually  over- 
flow these  low  grounds,  bringing  with 
ihem  a  rich  manure  of  mud  ;  and  when 
ihe  mud  has  lain  a  few  days,  the  Chinese 
prepare  to  plant  the  rice.  They  enclose  a 
piece  of  ground  with  a  clay -bank  ;  they 
plough  up  the  soil,  and  harrow  it,  with  the 
help  of  buffaloes.  The  grain  is  sprinkled 
rather  thickly  over  the  field,  and  imme- 
diately a  sheet  of  water  is  let  in,  which 
covers  the  whole  to  the  depth  of  a  few 
inches.  Channels  are  cut  from  the  rivers 
and  canals  to  effect  this.  Where  the 
grounds  lie  too  high  for  the  rivers  to  over- 
flow them,  water  is  raised  by  pumps  and 
other  hydraulic  machines,  for  this  purpose. 
Sometimes,  a  chain  of  pumps  is  construct- 
ed, each  one  raising  the  water  a  little,  till 
the  proper  height  is  gained.  This  is,  how- 
ever, only  a  preparatory  seed-bed. 

13.  The  ground  is  next  prepared  for 
the  main  crop,  by  ploughing,  harrowing, 
and  laying  it  level.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
in  the  seed-plot  are  about  seven  inches 
high,  they  are  plucked  up  by  the  roots, 
and  planted  separately,  in  rows,  either  in 
furrows,  or  in  holes  about  six  inches 
asunder.  Water  is  again  brought  over  the 
whole  field,  which  is  divided  by  low  clay- 
banks  into  smaller  plots,  to  which  the 
water  is  conveyed  by  channels,  at  pleasure. 
As  the   rice   grows  and  ripens  the  water 


8.  What  is  said  of  maize  ?  9.  Barley  ?  10.  Rice  ? 
11.  What  is  said  of  tlie  rice-crop  in  China?  12. 
13.   How  do  the  Chinese  cultivate  their  rice  ? 


dries  away.  So  that  the  crop  when  ripe, 
covers  dry  ground.  The  rice  is  reaped 
with  a  small  toothed  sickle. 

14.  Neither  carts  nor  cattle  are  used  to 
carry  away  the  crop ;  the  sheaves  are  laid 
upon  frames,  which  are  carried,  one  hang- 
ing at  each  end  of  a  pole  or  bamboo,  on  a 
man's  shoulder.  Sometimes  these  sheaves 
are  threshed  out  with  a  flail ;  sometimes 
the  ends  are  beaten  against  a  board  set  up 
on  its  edge,  or  against  the  sides  of  a  tub  ; 
or,  more  frequently,  the  sheaves  are  laid 
on  the  ground,  in  a  circle,  and  oxen  are 
driven  over  them,  to  tread  out  the  grain. 

15.  The  grain  is  separated  from  the 
husk,  frequently  by  pounding  in  a  sort 
of  mortar.  A  heavy  stone  fastened  to  a 
lever  is  raised,  by  a  man  treading  on  the 
other  end.  In  some  cases,  mills  are  built, 
which  lift  up  these  levers,  perhaps  twenty 
at  a  time.  Sometimes  the  rice  is  ground 
between  two  flat  stones,  kept  so  far  asunder 
as  not  to  crack  the  grain  itself.  As  the 
first  crop  ripens  in  May,  the  ground  is  im- 
mediately prepared  for  a  second,  which  is 
reaped  about  October. 

16.  Half  the  people  of  Asia  live  upon 
rice.  It  is  almost  the  only  food  in  many 
parts  of  Africa,  especially  among  the 
Moors,  in  the  northern  provinces.  Great 
quantities  are  also  carried  to  Eux-ope, 
where  it  is  in  high  esteem.  In  some 
countries,  fowls  and  meat  are  stewed  with 
the  rice,  and  served  up  altogether. 

17.  In  1697,  rice  was  carried  to  South 
Carolina,  where  the  soil  and  temperature 
have  suited  it  so  well,  that  it  has  become 
a  great  addition  to  the  products  of  that 
state.  The  grain  grown  there  is  larger 
than  that  which  comes  from  the  East 
Indies  ;  which,  added  to  its  swelling  and 
softening  more,  in  the  cooking,  makes  it 
in  higher  repute. 


!  14.  What  is  done  with  the  sheaves  ?    15.  How  is 

the  grain  separated  from  the  husk  ?     16.  Is  rice 

I  much  an  article  of  food?     17.  When  was  rice 

a2 


12 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


18.  The  lands  which  produce  rice  are 
more  numerous  and  more  fertile  in  the 
southern  parts  of  North  America,  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  world.  Along  the 
whole  coast  from  the  bay  of  Delaware  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  is  almost  one 
continued  tract  of  rice-fields.  The  rice- 
fields,  or  marshes  of  Virginia  alone  pro- 
duce more  rice  than  is  sufficient  to  supply 
all  the  people  of  America. 

19.  There  is  also  in  the  inland  parts  of 
North  America,  a  description  of  wild  rice, 
which  has  been  found  of  great  use  to  the 
new  settlers,  as  affording  them  a  supply, 
till  their  lands  could  be  made  productive. 
It  grows  in  places  where  the  water  is 
about  two  feet  deep.  The  Indians  gather 
it  thus :  about  the  time  that  it  begins  to 
ripen  from  its  milky  state,  they  go  into  the 


midst  of  it  in  their  canoes.  They  tie  to- 
gether large  bunches  of  it,  just  below  the 
ears,  or  panicles  ;  in  about  a  month  it  be- 
comes quite  ripe,  and  hard.  Then,  near 
the  end  of  September,  they  return,  and 
running  their  canoes  under  these  several 
bunches,  they  beat  the  grain  out,  and 
catch  it  as  it  falls.  Thej^  then  dry  it  in 
smoke,  and  rub  or  tread  off  the  husk. 

20.  Besides  the  places  already  mention- 
ed, the  common  rice  thrives  well  in  Spain, 
Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 


carried  to  South  Carolina  ?  18.  Is  rice  success^ 
fully  raised  in  this  country  ?  19.  What  is  said 
of  wild  rice  <'    20.  In  what  other  countries  does 


SAGO. 

21.  Sago  is  the  pith  of  a  tree,  which 
grows  in  the  East  Indies,  chiefly  in  the 
Spice  Islands,  and  is  a  species  of  palm. 
The  fruit  of  the  tree  is  worth  nothing  as 
food  ;  the  only  eatable  part  being  the  pith, 
which  fills  the  inner  part  of  it.  The  bark 
is  about  an  inch  thick,  and  covers  an  as- 
semblage of  long  fibres,  interwoven  with 
each  other  into  a  kind  of  net  work,  which 
is  enclosed  and  every  where  mingled  with 
a  gummy  powdery  substance,  almost  like 
meal. 

22.  The  natives  are  obliged  to  destroy 
the  tree  to  get  at  this  substance,  which  is 
very  important  to  them  as  a  substitute  for 
bread  ;  besides  being  an  article  of  exporta- 
tion, as  they  send  vast  quantities  of  it  to 
Europe.  The  tree  grows  to  be  thirty  or 
forty  feet  high,  and  its  diameter  .  is  often 
two  feet.  This  large  tree  is  cut  down  and 
sawed  into  pieces,  each  about  five  or  six 
feet  long  ;  and  these  are  split,  that  they 
may  more  easily  strip  off  the  bark,  and  get 
at  the  mealy  pith.  This  substance  they 
scrape  out  carefully,  and  soak,  and  wash 
it  in  water,  to  get  it  quite  clear  from  any 
fibrous  or  woody  matter  that  may  adhere 
to  it.  They  then  pound  it  in  mortars, 
and  strain  it  through  bags  and  cloths,  as 
the  meal  \vill  run  through  with  the  water, 
and  leave  the  refuse  behind,  which  is 
thro\vn  away.  The  meal  thus  becomes  a 
kind  of  paste,  which  may  be  eaten  direct- 
ly, or  preserved  for  several  years.  When 
they  want  to  use  it,  they  dilute  it  with 
water,  or  bake  or  boil  it,  as  they  please. 

23.  That  which  is  exported  is  first  dried, 
and  hardened,   in  earthenware  dishes,  by 

j  means  of  fire.  It  is  then  a  sort  of  bread, 
I  and  will  keep  a  great  length  of  time,  and 
j  in  any  climate.  Sometimes  they  eat  this 
I  sago  bread  just  warm  as  it  is  baked,  when 

rice  thrive  ?  21.  What  is  sago  ?  22.  How  is  it 
i  obtained  ?  Describe  the  tree  which  produces 
!  it.    23.  How  is  sago  prepared  for  exportation  ? 


ARTICLES    OF    FOOD. 


13 


it  resembles  our  hot  rolls.  Should  they 
make  the  fire  too  fierce,  the  ends  and 
corners  would  be  done  too  much,  and  be- 
come a  sort  of  jelly. 

24.  It  comes  to  us  in  small  grains, 
somewhat  resembling  coriander  seed.  To 
bring  it  to  this  state,  they  moisten  it,  and 
then  rub  it  through  a  sieve,  into  an  iron 
pan,  under  which  is  a  fire  ;  which  partly 
hardens  each  drop  as  it  falls  ;  thus  the 
•eparate  grains  are  half  baked  ;  in  which 
state  it  will  keep  a  long  while,  if  well  de- 
fended from  the  air ;  otherwise  it  is  liable 
to  become  sour. 

25.  Three  or  four  hundred  weight  of 
•ago  are  often  obtained  from  a  single  tree. 
There  is  a  species  of  sago  brought  from 
the  West  Indies,  but  it  is  inferior  to  that 
brought  from  the  East. 

PEAS  AND  BEANS. 

26.  The  common  peas  when  dried  are  in 
considerable  demand  as  food  for  cattle  and 
hogs.  There  is  a  better  sort,  which  is  in 
use  for  the  table.  Beans  are  extensively 
raised  in  New  England.  They  form  a 
great  article  of  food  among  the  people, 
and  a  ship's  stores  would  be  incomplete 
without  them. 

BEEF  AND  PORK. 

27.  Considerable  quantities  of  these  arti- 
cles are  salted  and  packed  in  barrels  and 
half  barrels  in  the  northern  and  middle 
states  for  home  consumption,  ship  stores 
and  for  exportation  to  the  West  Indies  and 
other  places.  Pork  is  extensively  sent 
from  Ohio  to  New  Orleans.  Lard  forms 
a  considerable  article  of  commerce  be- 
tween the  western,  southern  and  eastern 
states,  and  the  West  Indies.  There  is 
a  mode  of  preparing  beef  practised  in 
•South  America,  for  preservation,  by  cur- 
ing and  drying.     When  so  prepared  it  is 


24.  How  does  it  come  to  us  ?  25.  What  quantity 
may  be  obtained  from  a  single  tree  .'  Where  is  it 
brought  from  ?  27.  Are  beef  and  pork  articles 
of  commerce  ?  What  of  lard  ?  28.  Cheese  and 
butter? 

1* 


called  jerked  beef,  and  forms  an  import- 
ant article  for  exportation. 

CHEESE  AND  BUTTER. 
28.  Good  cheeses  are  made  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  other  parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  exported  to  the  West  Indies.  The 
cheeses  of  Holland  are  held  in  the  highest 
esteem,  and  come  to  us  usually  in  the 
form  of  a  pine-apple.  The  English  cheese, 
called  Cheshire,  acquires  its  peculiar  fla- 
vor chiefly  from  the  marshes  where  the 
cows  which  yield  the  milk  feed.  Butter 
is  an  article  of  very  general  domestic  pro- 
duce, and  is  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  tubs  or  firkins  to  the  West  Indies, 
South  America  and  other  places. 

CHAP.  II. 

ARTICLES  OF  FOOD.— continued. 

COD-FISH. 

1.  The  general  resort  of  the  cod-fish  is  on 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  other 
sand-banks  that  lie  ofl"  the  coasts  of  Cape 
Breton,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  England. 
The  grand  sand-bank  on  which  the  cod- 
fish are  taken  is  represented  as  a  vast  sub- 
marine mountain,  of  more  than  five  hun- 
dred miles  in  length,  and  nearly  three  hun- 
dred miles  broad.  Seamen  know  when 
they  approach  it  by  the  great  swell  of 
the  sea,  and  the  thick  mists  that  impend 
over  it. 

2.  The  labor  of  catching  the  cod-fish  Is 
very  great,  as  they  are  caught  singly  wit! 
the  hook ;  yet  an  active  fisher  may  catcli\ 
three  hundred,  or  more,  in  a  day ;  and  hisV^ 
comfort  is,  they  wiii  not  bite  at  night. 
The  weight  of  these  fish,  which  are  often 
three  feet  long,  and  the  great  coldness  of 
the  climate,  render  the  work  very  fa- 
tiguing.      Six    or    seven    hundred  vessels 


1.  Where  do  the  cod-fish  generally  resort.'' 
What  is  said  of  the  Grand  Bank  ?  2.  What  of 
catching  cod-fisli  r  How  many  vessels  may  be 
seen  engaged  at  a  time  in  the  business  f  3.  What 
is  done  with  the  fish  when  caught  f  When  is  the 


14 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


may  be  seen  at  a  time  engaged  in  this  pra- 
fitable  work ;  in  size,  from  a  hundred  to 
a  hundred  and  fifty  tons.  As  they  gener- 
ally succeed  in  taking  thirty  or  forty  thou- 
sand fish  each,  the  whole  number  taken  is 
immense ;  though  this  varies  at  different 
seasons,  for  the  fish  often  change  their 
haunts.    . 

3.  As  the  fish  are  taken,  it  is  generally 
the  master's  business  to  open  them,  cut 
off  the  heads,  and  salt  the  carcasses.  This 
is  done  as  soon  as  the  fish  is  caught ;  and 
the  success  of  the  concern  depends  on  his 
skill  and  care  in  these  particulars.  They 
are  then  stowed  in  the  hold  to  drain  ;  after 
which  they  are  stripped,  salted,  and  drain- 
ed again.  The  best  season  for  fishing  is 
from  the  earlier  part  of  February  to  the 
end  of  April ;  as  at  that  time  the  cod, 
which  had  retired  to  the  deeper  parts  of 
the  sea,  return  to  these  shallow  banks,  and 
grow  large  and  fat  very  fast.  Such  as. are 
caught  later  are  good,  but  will  not  keep 
so  long,  especially  if  caught  in  the  warmer 
month. 

4.  When  several  vessels  arrive  to  fish 
together,  he  who  first  touches  ground  be- 
comes a  sort  of  admiral,  and  takes  his 
choice  of  station,  and  of  the  wood  to  be 


cut  on  the  island.     They  each  raise  a  tent 
on  shore,  with    large    scaffolding   of  fir- 


nest  season  for  fishing?  4.  What  is  the  practice 
when  several  vessels  arrive  to  fish  together  ? 
5.  What  is  done  when  the  cod  are  to  be  dried  ? 


trees,  covered  with  their  sails  ;  for  they 
unrig  their  vessels,  and  leave  nothing  but 
the  masts  and  shrouds  standing  during 
their  operations  of  fishing. 

5.  When  the  cod  are  to  be  dried,  they 
bring  on  shore  every  day  what  they  have 
caught,  each  crew  to  their  own  tent. 
There  they  are  salted,  and  dried  in  thf» 
sun,  being  laid  out  on  stages,  and  turned 
several  times  a  df^^  They  are  next  laid 
in  heaps,  and  saWd^^ain,  till  properly 
prepared.  They  SfPe  finally  stowed  on 
board  ship,  and  carried  to  the  several 
markets. 

SHAD. 

6.  The  shad  of  America  is  a  very  supe- 
rior fish,  and  is  abundant  in  the  northern 
rivers.  Those  of  the  middle  states  are 
much  esteemed,  and  when  salted  and  bar- 
relled command  a  jrood  price.     These  fish 


are  chiefly  taken   during  the  months  of 
April  and  May. 

SALMON. 
7.  The  salmon,  though  a  salt-water  fish, 
swims  up  our  rivers  to  spawn.  They  are 
caught  on  their  return  in  great  numbers. 
The  rivers  of  Maine  are  plentifully  sup- 
plied with  this  fish,  which  the  first  of  the 
season  bring  a  high  price  in  the  great 
cities,  where  they  are  transported,  having 
been  packed  in  ice  for  preservation.    This 


1  6.  What  is  said  of  the  shad  ?  When  are  these 
I  fish  generally  taken  ?  7.  What  of  the  salmon  > 
1  Mention  the  different  methods  of  taking  this  fish 


ARTICLES    or    FOOD. 


19 


ALMONDS. 

7.  The  tree  which  produces  almonds 
nearly  resembles  the  peach  both  in  leaves 
and  blossoms  It  grows  spontaneously  only 
in  warm  countries,  as  Spain,  and  particular- 
ly Barbary.  The  aimond  harvest  in  the 
island  of  Majorca,  is  a  very  merry  season. 
Almonds  are  of  two  kinds,  sweet  and  bit- 
ter; the  Jordan  almond  is  of  the  highest 
({uality,  aed  the  bitter  almonds  are  most- 
ly from  Barbary.  The  best  almonds  are 
exported  from  Malaga.  In  medicine,  the 
oil  drawn  from  almonds  is  found  useful ; 
and  that  extracted  from  the  bitter  one,  if 
dropped  into  the  ear,  proves  efficacious  in 
cases  of  deafness. 

FIGS. 

8.  Figs  are  much  cultivated  in  the  Archi- 
pelago, where  they  serve  almost  as  bread 
to  the  inhabitants.  The  best  are  those 
which  come  from  Turkey  packed  in  cases 
or  drums.  While  fresh  they  are  excellent 
eating ;  and  like  grapes,  they  are  dried 
sometimes  in  the  sun,  and  sometimes  by 
lire.  They  are  covered  with  the  candy  of 
their  own  sweetness,  and  are  full  of  a  de- 
licious seedy  pulp.  Figs  of  a  good  qual- 
ity grow  in  the  southern  states. 

PRUNES. 

9.  Prunes  were  once  plums.  Some  very 
rich  ones,  neatly  done  up  in  little  baskets, 
are  called  French  plums.  The  prunes 
have  been  dried  in  an  oven.  They  come 
to  us  chiefly  from  Bourdeaux. 

ORANGES. 

10.  Oranges  are  thought  to  have  been 
originally  brought  from  China.  They  were 
introduced  into  Portugal  many  years  ago ; 
and  it  is  said  that  the  very  tree  first  plant- 
ed there  is  still  alive  ;  and  it  is  that  from 
which  all  the  orange-trees  of  Europe  have 
been  produced.  A  great  many  oranges 
are  brought  from  Seville  in  Spain,  and  the 


of  the  almond  tree  ?    What  kinds  of  almonds  are 

there .'    Whence  do  the  best  almonds  come  ?     Is 

'he  oil  of  any  use  ?    8.  What  is  said  of  figs,  and 

hence  are  the  best  iigs  brought.'    9.  What  of 


Island  of  Malta,  situated  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean furnishes  an  abundance.      Oranges 


come  to  great  perfection  in  the  West  In- 
dies, and  those  of  the  Bermudas  are  of  an 
extraordinary  size.  Oranges  are  some- 
times raised  in  green-houses  with  success ; 
and  they  thrive  tolerably  well  in  the 
southern  states,  but  do  not  form  an  article 
of  extensive  exportation  from  thence. 
LEMONS. 

11.  The  ports  of  Lisbon  and  Malaga  are 
the  principal  shipping-places  of  lemons  ; 
and  they  come  packed  in  cases  and  boxes. 
They  are  always  shipped  while  green ; 
and  generally  become  quite  yellow  before 
they  reach  this  country.  The  lemons  of 
the  Bermudas  are  large  and  of  fine  flavor. 

CITRONS. 

12.  The  citron  is  a  sort  of  lemon,  but 
larger,  finer,  and  more    fragrant.      They 


prunes.'  10.  From  what  country  are  orangeB 
thought  to  have  been  originally  brought  ?  What 
countries  export  them  principally?  11,  From 
what  ports  are  lemons  exported:     How  are  ther- 


20 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


are  brought  preserved  from  Madeira.  They 
grow  likewise  to  great  perfection  in  many- 
parts  of  Italy. 

PINE  APPLE. 
13.  This  fruit  grows  wild  in  Mexico, 
South  America,  Africa,  and  the  East  and 
West  Indies.  Hot-houses,  and  great  care, 
will  ripen  them  in  the  north.  The  plant 
itself  is  very  stately,  rising  from  a  tuft  of 


long  green  leaves,  with  a  stout  stalk;  the 
fruit  resembles  in  shape  the  cone  of  the 
pine-tree,  whence  it  has  derived  its  name. 
It  is  of  a  fine  yellow  color,  and  has  a 
coronet  of  green  leaves  adorning  the  top. 
OLIVES. 
14.  The  olea  or  olive-tree  is  a  native  of 
the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  France,  Italy,  Portu- 
gal and  Spain.  Olives  have  a  bitter  taste, 
but  pickled  they  prove  more  palatable. 
A  sweet  oil  is  obtained  from  them  when 
pressed,  which  is  in  very  general  use. 
What  comes  freely,  with  slight  pressure, 
is  the  finest  and  sweetest ;  more  pressure 
with  some  heat,  forces  out  a  second  sort, 
not  so  pure ;  and  a  third,  still  more 
coarse,  is  obtained  by  the  aid  of  hot  water 
and  still  greater  force.  Scarcely  any  veg- 
etable produce  is  more  used  than  oil ; 
especially  in  those  countries  where  the 
climate  is  too  warm  for  butter. 


shipped?  12.  What  of  citrons  ?  13.  In  what  coun- 
tries does  the  pine  apple  groAv .'  What  is  said 
of  the  plant  ?  14.  What  of  the  olive  ?  How  is 
sweet  oil  obtained '    15.  What  are  tamarinds  ? 


TAMARINDS. 

15.  These  are  the  fruit  of  an  Indian  treo, 
which  grows  very  large,  somewhat  lika 
the  ash-tree.  The  fruit  grows  in  clusters, 
like  a  number  of  bean-pods  tied  together 
about  as  long,  and  rather  thicker,  eacl 
containing  several  stony  seeds  enclosed  ir 
a  dark-colored  pulp.  Tamarinds  are  of  f 
cooling  nature,  and  in  sickness,  help  tt 
allay  the  feverish  thirst  of  the  patient 
The  East  India  tamarinds  are  longer  thar 
the  West  India;  the  former  containinf 
six  or  seven  seeds  each,  the  latter  rarej,- 
above  three  or  four. 

DATES. 

16.  Dates  are  the  fruit  of  a  specie* 
of  palm-tree,  which  grows  in  Barbary  ani 
other  parts  of  x\frica,  and  in  Arabia.  Thew 
are  of  a  sweetish  taste  and  contain  a  ker 
nel  with  a  furrow  running  its  whole  length 
The  fruit  is  frequently  imported  into  thi» 
country. 

COCOA-NUTS. 

17.  The  cocoa-nut  is  the  produce  of  a 
tree,  which  is  common  in  the  West  Indies, 
Asia,  the  South  Sea  Islands,  &c.  It  is 
a  woody  fruit  of  an  oval  shape  from  four 
to  eight  inches  in  length,  covered  with  a 
fibrous  husk,  and  containing  a  white,  firm 
and  fleshy  kernel.  The  tree  is  a  kind  of 
palm ;  and  the  nuts  hang  from  the  summit 
in  clusters  of  a  dozen  or  more  together. 
FILBERTS,  WALNUTS,  &c. 

18.  Among  the  other  species  of  shelled 
fruit  which  form  a  commercial  commodity 
amongst  us,  are  the  common  filberts,  wal- 
nuts and  chestnuts  of  this  part  of  the 
country,  the  ground-nuts  of  the  southern 
states,  the  pistachia-nuts  of  Sicily  and 
other  warm  climates,  the  castana-nut  of 
Louisiana  and  the  West  Indies,  and  many 
others,  which  it  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to 
enumerate. 


How  does  the  fruit  grow  ?  Are  the  East  India 
longer  than  the  W.  India  tamarinds.^  16.  Where 
do  dates  come  from :  17.  What  of  cocoa-nuts  .-* 
18.  What  other  nuts  form  with  us  articles  of  trade  f 


ARTICLES    OF    FOOD. 


2i 


dCHAP.  IV 
ARTICLES  OF  FOOD.— Continued. 

SUGAR. 

1.  Whether  the  sugar-cane  is  indigenous 
to  the  West  Indies  has  been  a  matter  of 
some  dispute,  aUliough  authors  generally 
agree  that  it  is  found  growing  wild  in  both 
continents  of  America.  Yet  it  seems  an 
allowed  fact,  also,  that,  at  a  very  early 
period  of  the  occupation  of  Ilispaniola,  by 
the  Spaniards,  Ovando,  the  governor,  pro- 
cured from  the  Canary  Islands  some  plants 
of  the  sugar-cane ;  as  a  curiosity,  perhaps 
as  a  nicety.  But  the  mode  of  procuring 
sugar  from  it,  which  occasions  its  present 
value  and  importance,  does  not  appear  to 
Iiave  been  known,  even  if  the  plant  were 
common  then.  It  is  to  the  Spaniards 
and  Portuguese  that  we  are  indebted  for 
this  process.  The  plant  itself  is  eatable  in 
some  states,  and  much  sweet  juice  might 
be  extracted  from  it,  in  which  form  only  it 
was  used  for  ages,  for  the  art  of  granulat- 
ing and  crystallizing  that  juice  had  not  been 
discovered. 

2.  That  the  sugar-cane  grows  naturally 
in  the  East  Indies  is  well  known,  and  much 
sugar  is  now  made  there,  though  it  is  not 
so  strong  in  its  sweetness  as  that  of  the 
West  Indies.  Marco  Paulo,  a  Venetian, 
who  travelled  into  the  East  about  the  year 
1250,  tells  us,  he  found  sugar  plentiful  in 
the  Indies :  and  when  De  Gama,  by  doub- 
ling the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1497,  came 
to  Calicut,  he  not  only  found  sugar,  but 
also,  that  it  constituted  a  considerable  arti- 
c'.le  of  commerce  among  the  natives. 

3.  Sugar  was  first  known  to  Europeans 
during  Alexander's  expedition  to  India.  It 
was  found  there  by  Nearchus,  his  famous 
naval    commander,  above    three   hundred 


1.  What  is  said  of  the  sugar-cane  ?  To  whom 
are  we  indebted  for  the  method  of  procuring 
sugar  ?  2.  Does  the  sugar-cane  grow  naturally 
in  the  East  Indies  ?  Was  sugar  found  plentiful- 
ly there  by  the  early  travellers  ?  3.  When  was 
2 


years  before  the  Christian  era.  Possibly 
we  do  not  err  in  carrying  our  researches 
back  to  the  time  of  the  Jews  ;  for  Jeremiah 
says,  chap.  v.  v.  20,  'to  what  purpose 
cometh  there  to  me  the  sweet  cane,  from 
afar  country?'  Isaiah  prophesies,  chap. 
XXXV.  V.  7,  *  that  in  the  wilderness  inhabi- 
ted by  dragons,  should  grow  grass,  with 
the  sweet  cane.'  And  indeed  Moses,  Exod. 
XXX.  V.  23,  is  told  to  compound  the  sacred 
ointment  with  ^among  other  articles)  'the 
sweet  cane.' 

4.  The  plant,  therefore,  has  long  been 
known,  although  the  method  of  extracting 
sugar  from  it  is  comparatively  modern. 
The  Romans  had  nothing  in  common  use 
as  a  sweetener  but  honey ;  their  sweet 
wines,  therefore,  must  have  been  very  lus- 
cious and  clammy. 

5.  The  sugar-cane  seems  to  have  been 
more  especially  brought  into  the  notice  of 
European  countries,  by  the  Crusaders. 
The  plant  was  spread  early,  by  their  means, 
over  the  lands  bordering  upon  the  Medi- 
terranean, Rhodes,  Malta,  and  Sicily, 
especially ;  and  so,  from  thence,  to  Spain, 
and  its  newly  discovered  islands,  the  Ma- 
deiras and  Canaries. 

6.  In  the  West  Indies,  the  plant  appears 
in  all  its  beauty  and  usefulness.  It  is  a 
reed,  full  of  joints,  rising  to  the  height  of 
three,  six,  and  sometimes  twelve  feet,  ac- 
cording as  the  soil  is  favorable.  The  joints 
are  from  forty  to  sixty  in  number.  Seve- 
ral stalks  rise  from  one  root.  The  bark, 
when  ripe,  is  of  a  golden  yellow,  sometimes 
beautifully  streaked  with  red.  From  the 
centre,  shoots  up  a  sort  of  silver  wand,  of 
three  or  more  feet  in  length,  from  the  top 
of  which  spreads  out  a  kind  of  plume  of 
white  feathers,  a  little  fringed  with  lilac,  or 
light  purple  ;  this  is  the  blossom ;  so  that  a 


sxigar  first  known  to  Europeans  ?  Is  there  any 
thing,  which  might  be  construed  into  an  allusion 
to  it,  in  Scripture  ?  4.  What  did  the  Romans  use 
for  sweetening.  5.  How  was  the  sugar-cane 
brought  into  notice  ?     i>    Describe  the  plant,  as 


22 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


field  of  sugar-canes,  when  fully  grown,  is 
beautiful,  and  even  splendid,  under  the  il- 
lumination of  a  tropical  sun. 

7.  When  a  plantation  is  to  be  made,  the 
ground  is  accurately  marked  out,  by  a  line, 
into  little  squares  of  three  or  four  feet  wide. 
A  hole,  or  trench,  is  then  digged  in  the 
middle  of  each  square,  and  the  new  plants 
(which  are  the  top  shoots  of  such  old  ones 
as  have  yielded  their  sugar,)  are  laid  in 
pairs,  horizontally,  in  them,  and  covered 
up  about  two  inches  deep  in  mould.  Each 
of  these  shoots  has  five  or  six  joints  ;  every 
joint  will  grow  and  send  forth  several 
stems,  which  appear  in  about  a  fortnight. 


The  labor  then  is  to  keep  the  whole  plan- 
tation clear  from  weeds. 

8.  Not  that  the  plantation  is  altogether 
safe,  for  rats  devour,  and  insects  infest  the 
young  plants ;  but  the  most  important  ma- 
rauders, are  the  monkeys ;  these  come 
down  in  troops,  silently,  during  the  night ; 
and  they  are  cunning  enough  to  place  sen- 
tinels around  the  scene  of  their  depreda- 
tions, to  give  alarm  in  case  any  interruption 
should  be  threatened.  While  all  is  safe, 
they  play  their  antic  gambols,  by  running, 
scampering,  climbing,  quarrelling,  fighting, 
and  do  more  mischief  thus  than  by  their 
voracity,  although  it  may  be  supposed,  that 
such    numbers    devour    a    great  quantity. 


The  only  way  to  defend  the  crop,  is"  to  set 
a  numerous  watch  of  negroes,  with  guns , 
a  work  they  readily  undertake,  becauso 
they  are  very  fond  of  monkey's  flesh  for 
food. 

9.  In  November,  the  canes  are  in 
blossom  ;  their  ripening  season  comes  in 
the  next  spring  and  summer ;  as  differ- 
ent plantations  become  ripe  at  various 
times,  and  different  modes  of  reaping  are 
adopted. 

10.  The  time  of  the  sugar  crop,  like 
that  of  the  vintage,  is  a  season  of  rejoicing 
and  jollity.  The  juice  of  the  sugar-cane 
is  so  gratifying,  so  nourishing,  so  healthful, 
that  all  ranks  reckon  upon  it.  The  sickly 
negroes  soon  get  well ;  and  the  healthy  be- 
come robust  and  vigorous.  The  horses, 
oxen,  and  mules,  to  whom  the  green  tops 
are  given,  with  skimmings  from  the  boil- 
ers, thrive  and  grow  fat,  notwithstanding 
their  additional  labor;  while  poultry  and. 
pigs  fatten  on  the  mere  refuse. 

11.  When  the  canes  are  ripe,  they  are 
cut  down;  the  leaves  and  top  branches 
are  stripped  off  immediately,  and  the  stems 
are  bundled  up  like  fagots,  and  carted  to 
the  mill-house  ;  where,  by  great  pressure, 
the  juice  is  squeezed  out,  and  it  runs  by 
a  trough  into  a  vessel  placed  to  receive  it. 
To  fit  them  for  the  mill,  they  are  cut  into 
pieces  about  three  feet  long.  The  mill 
consists  of  three  upright  rollers ;  the  canes 
are  drawn  through  between  the  middle  and 
one  of  the  other  rollers,  and  then  returned 
to  be  compressed  again  between  the  mid- 
dle one  and  the  other ;  by  which  they  be- 
come quite  dry,  and  are  only  fit  for  fuel  to 
boil  the  Hquor. 

12.  The  juice  thus  obtained  would 
ferment  presently,  if  it  were  not  boiled. 
This  part  of  the  process,  therefore,  takes 
place  directly.  Some  powdered  lime  is 
mingled  with  the  juice,  to  imbibe  an  acid 


it  appears  in  the  West  Indies.     7.  A  plantation. !;  9.  When  do  the  canes  blossom  and  ripen.'     10. 
8    To  what  enemies  are  the  plantations  Uable '  [j  How  is  the  time  of  the   sugar  crop  observed? 


ARTICLES    or    FOOD. 


29 


which  abounds  in  it.  The  heat  is  applied, 
»nd  increased  gradually,  that  the  scum 
may  rise ;  were  it  to  boil  furiously,  the 
dregs  would  mingle,  so  that  it  never  could 
be  purified.  The  juice  thus  clarified  is 
boiled  again  and  again  ;  which  repeated 
boilings  not  only  cleanse  it  from  more 
jcum,  but  also  evaporate  the  watery  par- 
iicles,  so  that  what  remains  is  more  ready 
«  crystallize. 

13.  To  produce  crystallization,  the  li- 
quor is  run  into  broad,  shallow  coolers, 
iv'hen  it  begins  to  granulate.  It  is  then 
removed  again  into  vessels,  contrived  to 
'et  the  sweet  moisture,  called  molasses, 
irain  away  from  it;  and  then  becoming 
j»retty  dry,  it  is  called  sugar ;  muscovado, 
»r  raw  sugar.  In  this  state,  it  comes  to 
MS  from  the  West  Indies.  The  process 
ff£  refining,  by  which  it  is  made  white, 
hard,  and,  as  we  call  it,  lump  sugar,  takes 
place  in  this  country.  The  essence  of  the 
process  consists  in  repeated  boilings,  which 
Again  reduce  it  to  a  fluid  state,  and  then 
it  is  mingled  with  substances  which  cause 
Ihe  scum  to  rise.  When  this  scum  is 
completely  cleansed  away,  the  sirup  is,  by 
great  heat,  crystallized ;  and  being  poured 
into  moulds,  becomes  lump,  or  loaf  sugar. 

14.  Sugar  is  the  most  nourishing  sub- 
stance in  nature  ;  persons  have  lived  upon 
it  in  times  of  scarcity,  on  board  a  ship ; 
it  is  also  wholesome,  as  it  in  such  cases 
cured  the  scurvy.  The  Indians  of  North 
America  prefer  it  for  their  long  journeys, 
because  it  does  not  corrupt  and  spoil,  as 
many  sorts  of  provisions  do  ;  and  they  mix 
it  with  an  equal  quantity  of  powdered  In- 
dian corn.  Horses  are  very  fond  of  it, 
and  are  kept  in  excellent  condition  by  it. 
It  may  be  added  that  the  plague  has 
never  appeared  in  those  countries  where 
it  is  much  in  use  ;  and  also,  that  it  tends 


11.  How  is  the  juice  extracted  ?  12.  Boiled  ? 
13.  Crystallized  ?  What  is  the  sweet  substance 
drained  from  it  called  ?  2.  What  is  the  produce  of 


to  hinder  the  occurrence  and  virulence  of 
malignant  fevers. 

15.  There  are  extensive  sugar  planta- 
tions in  Louisiana,  and  great  quantities 
of  sugar  are  exported  from  New  Orleans. 
The  sugar-cane  is  principally  raised  upon 
that  tract  called  the  coast,  upon  the  shores 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  upon  the  ba- 
yous of  the  Mississippi. 

16.  Although  sugar  is  most  plentifully 
obtained  from  the  sugar-cane,  yet  that  is 
not  the  only  vegetable  which  contains  it. 
It  is  found  in  many  plants,  though  in  none 
from  which  it  can  be  so  easily  drawn  as 
this.  There  is  in  this  country  a  tree  called 
the  Sugar  Maple.  This  yields  it  in  con- 
siderable quantity,  though  the  flavor  is  by 
no  means  equal  to  that  of  the  cane.  In 
the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  sun  be- 
gins to  draw  the  sap  into  the  branches,  a 
hole  is  bored  through  the  bark  of  the  tree; 
into  this  is  put  a  spout,  and  this  leads  the 
sap,  as  it  runs,  into  a  vessel  placed  to 
catch  it.  As  the  south  side  of  the  tree 
first  feels  the  influence  of  the  sun,  it  is 
tapped  first  on  that  side ;  afterwards  it  is 
bored  on  the  north  side,  and  a  fresh  sup- 


ply is  obtained.  The  quantity  of  juice  or 
sap  which  runs  in  a  day  varies  from  one 
pint  to  five  gallons.  This  sap  is  boiled 
down,  skimmed  and  crystallized,  by  a  pro- 


the  cane  called,  when  dried.?  What  is  lump 
sugar,  and  how  is  it  made  ?  14.  Is  sugar  a  nour- 
ishing substance .'  15.  Are  there  any  sugar  plant- 


24 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE 


cess  well  known,  and  is  extensively  used 
in  the  back  settlements.  This  sugar  is  as 
dark  in  color  almost  as  mahogany. 

17.  There  are  many  othe^  vegetables 
from  which  sugar  can  be  obtained  by 
chemical  processes,  as  beet-root,  parsneps, 
potatoes,  red  cabbage  stalks,  &c.  but  the 
qua^ty  produced  from  these  is  too  small 
to  make  it  an  article  of  commerce. 

MOLASSES. 

18.  Molasses  is  the  gross  fluid  matter 
that  remains  of  sugar  after  refining ; 
which  no  boiling  can  bring  to  a  consist- 
ence more  solid  that  sirup.  It  is  export- 
ed in  hogsheads  from  the  West  Indies, 
and  is  perniciously  used  in  the  distillation 
of  rum. 

HONEY. 

19.  Honey  is  found  in  large  quantities 
in  a  number  of  vegetables,  and  is  collected 
and  prepared  by  bees.  It  is  the  produc- 
tion of  almost  every  country,  but  is  more 
abundant  in  the  island  of  Candia,  in  the 
Archipelago,  than  any  where  else.  Con-  i 
siderable  quantities  of  honey  are  produced 
by  the  wild  bees  in  the  woods  of  North 
America;  and  it  is  sometimes  imported 
from  the  West  Indies  in  barrels. 

CHAP.  V. 

SALT,  SPICES,  &c. 

SALT. 
1.  Salt  being  a  substance  of  actual  ne- 
cessity to  man,  is  widely  and  plentifully 
diffused.  The  salt  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  bay-salt,  is  obtained  from  the 
water  of  the  sea  by  evaporation.  It  had 
this  name  from  being  first  made  in  the 
bay  of  St.  Ubes,  in  Portugal ;  and  great 
quantities  of  it  are  still  exported  from  this 
place. 


2.  In  France  large  shallow  pits  are  dug 
by  the  sea-shore,  into  which  the  water 
flows   at  high-tide ;  and  by  a  sluice,  it  is 


ations  in  the  United  States  ?  16.  Is  sugar  obtain- 
ed from  any  other  vegetable?  What  is  maple 
sugar.'  17  Are  there  any  other  vegetables  from 
which  sugar  can  be  extracted?  18.  What  is 
molasses?    19.  Honey? 


prevented  from  returning  when  the  tide 
falls.  The  heat  of  the  sun  evaporates 
this  water;  the  salt  crystallizes  on  the 
edges  and  bottoms  of  the  pits ;  and  this  is 
carefully  gathered  up  for  use. 

3.  Much  salt  is  prepared  in  vats  at  Cape 
Cod  and  other  places  along  the  sea-coast 
of  the  United  States.  Salt  springs  abound 
in  the  western  part  of  the  state  of  New 
York;  and  at  Salina,  there  are  large  es- 
tablishments for  the  manufacture  of  salt. 
The  salt  water  is  obtained  by  sinking  wells 
and  boring ;  and  the  salt  prepared  is  beau- 
tifully white  and  fine-grained. 

4.  Providence  has  kindly  given  man- 
kind great  stores  of  this  useful  materi- 
al.     Some  mountains    are  composed   in- 

Iternally  of  salt;  many  pits  have  been 
opened  in  which  the  miners  travel  far, 
among  arcades  of  rock-salt,  from  among 
which  they  obtain  large  quantities  of  this 
valuable  article.  England,  Italy,  Poland, 
have  such.  The  island  of  Ormuz,  in  the 
Persian  Gulf,  is  little  else  than  a  mass  of 
salt;  vast  plains  of  it  are  found  in  Ame- 
rica;  and  it  is  most  likely,  that  moun- 
tains of  salt  at  the  bottom   of  the  ocean, 


1.  What  is  meant  by  bay-salt?  2  Hovsr  is  salt 
obtained  in  France  ?  3.  Is  salt  prepared  in  New 
England  ?  Are  there  salt  springs  in  the  United 
States  ?  4.  What  else  is  said  of  salt  ?  Whence 
are  great  quantities  brought  to  the  United  States? 


SALT,    SPICES,  &C 


25 


occasion  the  saltness  so  perceptible  in  sea-  I 
water,  and  by  which  it  is  kept  from  be- 
coming   corrupted.      Great    quantities  of 
Bait  are  brought  from  Turk's  Island,  in  the 
West  Indies,  to  the  United  States. 

5.  The  only  mines  of  rock-salt  in  Eng- 
land are  those  in  Cheshire.  It  is  there 
ilug  out  of  the  mines  with  pickaxes  ;  and 
«  conveyed  by  shipping  to  places  where 
the  refiners  dissolve  it  by  boiling  it  in  sea- 
ivater;  then,  by  mixing  eggs  with  it,  a 
«cum  is  made  to  rise,  which  is  taken  off; 
by  longer  continuance  of  the  heat,  all  the 
•vater  is  evaporated,  and  the  pure  salt 
crystallizes,  fit  for  use. 

PEPPER. 

6.  Pepper  is  a  small  berry,  which  is 
ground  to  a  fine  powder,  to  make  it  con- 
venient for  use  at  the  table.  The  plant 
©n  which  it  grows  flourishes  in  the  East 
Indies,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  in  Java, 
Sumatra  and  Ceylon.  It  is  a  feeble  creep- 
ing plant,  and  therefore,  in  cultivation,  is 
placed  near  some  large  tree,  which  may 
yield  it  support.  The  grain,  which  grows 
in  clusters,  appears  first  green,  then  red ; 
and  is  turned  black  by  exposure  to  the 
sun.  It  is  best  for  families  to  buy  the 
pepper  whole,  as,  in  grinding,  dealers  have 
opportunity  for  adulteration.  White  pep- 
per is  a  preparation  from  this,  which  takes 
away  much  of  its  strength.  Sometimes 
too,  that  is  adulterated  ;  and  is  even,  by 
art,  stained  whitish  to  deceive. 

ALLSPICE. 

7.  Allspice  or  ^mento  is  the  aromatic 
fruit  of  a  tree  which  grows  in  Mexico  and 
the  West  Indies.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Jamaica  pepper,  and  received  its  name  of 
allspice,  because  it  is  similar  in  smell  to 
cloves,  nutmegs  and  cinnamon. 

NUTMEGS. 

8.  The  nutmeg  is  a  very  aromatic  spice. 
It  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree  which  grows  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  is  about  the  size  of 


5.  Are  there  any  mines  of  salt  in  England  ? 
3 


a  pear-tree.  The  nutmeg  is  the  kernel 
of  a  fruit,  not  unlike  the  peach,  and  its 
rind  or  coat  is  called  mace.  The  round 
nutmeg  is  preferred  to  that  which  is  ob- 
long. Nutmegs  have  been  long  used  both 
for  culinary,  and  medicinal  purposes.  Dis- 
tilled with  water,  they  yield  a  large  quan- 
tity of  essential  oil,  resembling  in  flUor 
the  spice  itself.  The  growth  of  this  aro- 
matic is  chiefly  confined  to  a  few  of  the 
Banda  Islands,  whereof  Banda  itself,  Neira, 
and  Pouloay  produce  800,000  lbs.  of  nut- 
megs annually.  The  method  of  gather- 
ing and  preparing  nutmegs  is  as  follows : 
When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  the  natives  ascend 
the  trees,  and  gather  it  by  puUing  the 
branches  to  them  with  long  hooks.  The 
nutmegs  when  gathered  would  soon  cor- 
rupt if  they  were  not  watered,  or  rather 
pickled,  with  lime-water  made  from  cal- 
cined shell-fish,  which  is  diluted  with  salt 
water  till  it  attains  some  consistence.  Into 
this  mixture  the  nutmegs,  contained  in 
small  baskets,  are  plunged  two  or  three 
times,  till  they  are  completely  crusted  over 
with  the  mixture.  They  are  afterwards 
laid  in  a  heap,  where  they  heat,  and  lose 
their  superfluous  moisture. 
CINNAMON. 

9.  Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  the 
younger  branches  of  a  sort  of  laurel,  which 
grows  in  the  island  of  Ceylon,  and  other 
parts  of  the  East  Indies.  Cassia  is  the 
bark  of  another  sort  of  laurel.  It  is  thicker 
and  coarser  than  cinnamon,  but  of  a  simi- 
lar taste.  It  is  mosltly  imported  from 
China. 

CLOVES. 

10.  The  clove  grows  in  Amboyna,  as  it 
did  once  over  all  the  Molucca  Islands ;  but 
the  Dutch  destroyed  those  trees,  in  order 
to  keep  all  the  trade  in  their  own  power. 
It  is  the  unexpanded  bud  of  a  tree,  similar 
to  the  laurel  in  height,  and  in  the  shape 
of  its  leaves.     It  had  its  name  m  France 


What  is  said  of  pepper  ?    7.  Allspice  ?    8.  Nut- 


26 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


because  it  looks  much  like  a  nail,  called  in 
French  clou. 

GINGER. 
11.  Ginger  grows  near  Calicut,  in  Asia, 
but  we  have  it  from  the  West  Indies.  It 
is  the  root  of  a  plant  something  like  our 
rush.  It  does  not  grow  deep,  but  spreads 
abrc^  under  the  surface.  It  is  dug  up, 
when  fully  grown,  and  dried  as  you  see  it. 
When  preserved,  it  is  boiled  with  sugar 
and  honey,  just  as  it  was  dug  up  green. 

CHAP.  VI. 
TEA,  COFFEE,  &c. 

TEA. 

1.  The  dry  leaves  of  the  tea-plant  have 
become  one  of  the  necessaries  of  life. 
There  are  many  denominations  of  tea,  in 
commerce ;  as  Imperial,  Gunpowder,  Sin- 
glo.  Hyson,  &c.  But  the  general  divisions 
may  be  stated  thus,  black  and  green  teas. 
Some  travellers  tell  us,  that  there  is  but 
one  sort  of  plant  from  which  the  leaves 
are  taken,  and  that  all  the  difference  is 
made  by  their  being  either  young  leaves, 
or  fully  grown.  Yet  botanists  usually 
hold,  that  there  are  at  least  two  species ;" 
differing  something  in  their  leaves,  and 
essentially  different  in  their  flowers ;  that 
pf  the  bohea,  or  black  tea,  having  six 
petals  ;  and  that  of  the  green  tea-shrub 
having  nine. 

2.  It  is  said,  too,  that  the  finest  tea- 
shrubs  grow  in  Japan,  on  one  particular 
mountain,  which  is  f|iclosed  with  a  strong 
hedge,  and  wide  ditches,  and  carefully 
guarded,  by  persons  maintained  for  this 
express  business.  .These  have  a  trouble- 
some office,  as  they  are  charged  not  to 
suffer  the  dust  to  remain  upon  the  leaves. 
They  must   never  breathe  on   them,   nor 


megs  ?  9.  Cinnamon  ?   Cassia  ?    10.  Where  does 
.the  clove  grow  ?   What  is  it  ?    Whence  had  it  its 
name  ?   11.  What  can  you  say  of  ginger  ? 
I   Are  there  oany  kinds  of  tea  ?    2.  Where  is 


touch  them  with  their  fingers  when  they 
gather  them,  but  must  wear  very  delicate 
gloves.  When  this  tea  is  fully  prepared, 
it  is  conducted,  under  a  strong  guard  of 
soldiers,  to  the  emperor's  palace  ;  because 
it  is  all  set  apart  for  his  personal  use.  Of 
course,  this  is  not  the  tea  which  we  drink 
Indeed,  we  are  not  allowed  to  trade  to 
Japan. 

3.  The  tea  we  have  in  America  comes 
from  China.  And  the  trade  in  it  forms 
a  very  important  branch  of  commerce. 
The  quantity  of  tea  now  consumed  in 
the  United  States  is  very  great,  and  it  in- 
creases every  year ;  as  the  lowest  persons 
of  our  large  population  make  a  part  of 
their  meals  of  it.  The  quantity  brought 
annually  into  England  thirty  years  ago 
was  twenty  millions  of  pounds,  and  nearly 
as  much  more  goes  now  to  the  other  na- 
tions of  Europe.  The  English  govern- 
ment obtains  a  revenue  from  what  comes 
to  Britain,  amounting  to  between  three 
and  four  millions  of  pounds  sterling  every 
year. 

4.  Sixty  or  seventy  years  ago  tea  was 
scarcely  known  among  the  common  peo- 
ple. A  story  is  related  of  a  farmer's 
wife,  to  whom  was  sent  a  present  of  a 
pound  of  tea ;  and  she  was  so  ignorant  of 
the  proper  mode  of  using  it,  that  she  boil- 
ed it  all  in  milk,  and  the  family  ate  it  up, 
leaves  and  all,  at  one  meal ;  declaring  it 
was  very  good  indeed ! 

5.  The  use  of.  tea,  is  comparatively 
modern.  The  first  thaAjame  into  Europe 
was  brought  by  the  Dutch,  in  the  year 
1610.  Fifty  years  after  this,  it  was  intro- 
duced in  London,  at  the  coffee-houses,  as 
a  rarity  and  a  luxury.  It  was  two  years 
longer  before  some  of  the  private  families 
among  the  nobility  adopted  it.     At   this 


the  finest  tea  said  to  grow  ?  How  is  this  tea  cul- 
tivated.' 3.  Whence  does  our  tea  come  ?  Do  we 
use  much  ?  Does  much  go  to  Europe  ?  4.  Was 
tea  much  known  sixty  years  ago  r    5.  When  w»s 


TEA,  COFFEE,  &C. 


27 


time,  it  was  sold  at  sixty  shillings  per 
pound  ;  it  could  not  therefore  come  into 
common  use.  As  greater  quantities  were 
brought  over,  the  price  was  lowered  ;  and 
the  use  gradually  increased  ;  till  it  is  now 
become  almost  one  of  the  necessaries  of 
life  to  people  even  in  the  humblest  stations. 
6.  The  plant  which  produces  tea  will 
grow,  if  permitted,  to  ten  or  twelve  feet 
in  height ;  but  in  China,  where  it  is  very 
carefully  cultivated,  it  is  kept  much  lower. 
They  dibble  the  seeds  into  the  earth  in 
regular  rows.  They  will  then  grow  with 
only  the  care  of  pruning,  and  weeding. 
Some    of  the    cultivators    richly   manure 


the  soil ;  for  the  Chinese  are  as  careful  of 
their  tea-plants,  as  Europeans  are  of  their 
vines,. 

7.  iThe  plant  must  be  three  years  old, 
befor^  the  leaves  are  fit  for  use ;  and  when 
It  has:  borne  for  about  an  equal  length  of 
time,  the  leaves  get  so  coarse  and  hard  as 
not  to\  be  worth  ^Itivating  any  longer; 
The  plant  must  then  be  cut  down  almost 
10  the  ground  ;  this  will  occasion  a  new 
set  of  shoots  to  arise,  which,  in  their  turn, 
yield  young  and  excellent  leaves  for  several 
seasons.  The  flower  which  it  bears  is  not 
very  splendid.  Neither  is  the  fruit  of  it 
of  any  use.  It  bears  3.  sort  of  triple  berry  ; 
we  now  and  then  find  one  among  the  tea. 


tea  brouffht  into  Europe  ?  How  was  it  sold  ?  6. 
What  of  the  plant  which  produces  tea  ?  7.  How 
old  must  it  be  before  the  leaves  are  fit  to  gather  ? 


8.  The  plant  is  cultivated  to  best  advan- 
tage on  the  side  slopes  of  hills  which  face 
the  sun :  or  in  warm  valleys,  adjacent  to 
the  banks  of  rivers.  It  will,  however, 
grow  even  in  rocky  places,  and  on  strong 
soils  ;  where,  indeed,  the  finest  leaves  are 
produced.  The  Chinese  do  not  suffer  a 
single  inch  of  ground  to  remain  barren. 
It  will  grow  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
empire  ;  but  it  flourishes  best  in  the  mild- 
er provinces  of  the  south. 

9.  There  are  three  seasons  for  gather 
ing  the  leaves.  The  first  is  about  the  be- 
ginning of  March,  when  the  leaves  are 
very  small,  and  not  a  week  old.  This  is 
called  imperial  tea,  and  is  reserved  for  the 
emperor  and  the  grandees,  who  only  can 
afford  to  pay  for  it ;  the  produce  being 
small,  the  price  must  be  the  greater.  The 
persons  who  gather  these  leaves  cannot 
pick  them  by  handfuls,  but  only  one  by 
one  ;  and  they  must  be  very  careful  not 
to  break  or  damage  them,  in  the  least. 

10.  The  second  crop  becomes  fit  for  use 
about  a  month  afler  the  first,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  April.  At  this  time  some  leaves 
are  fully  grown,  and  others  are  still  young ; 
they  are,  however,  all  plucked,  and  after- 
wards sorted.  The  smaller  sort  are  often 
sold,  as  belonging  to  the  first  crop,  at  a 
high  price. 

11.  The  country  is  all  alive  in  this 
business,  when  the  third  and  principal 
gathering  takes  place,  which  is  in  the 
month  of  June  ;  then  the  leaves  are  very 
numerous,  and  have^^jsittained  their  full 
size.  This  tea  is  consequently  of  a  coarser 
flavor,  and  lower  price. 

12.  Those  who  do  notjpake  these  three 
gatherings,  but  only  two,  or  even  only  one, 
yet  sort  out  the  leaves  into  several  par- 
cels, according  to  their  size  and  delicacy. 
These  gatherings  take  place  on  those  lands 
where   the    plant  is    regularly  cultivated. 


8.  Where  is  it  best  cultivated  ?  9.  What  are  the 
seasons  for  gathering  the  leaves  ?  What  of  the 
first  crop?    10.  The  second?     11.   The  third? 


28 


feOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


But  it  also  grows  wild  in  great  abundance, 
and  often  to  superior  excellence,  upon  the 
steep  sides  of  mountains  and  rocks,  where 
it  is  almost  or  quite  impossible  to  reach 
them.  A  singular  method  of  obtaining 
the  leaves  growing  in  these  difficult  places, 
is  resorted  to.  Although  these  rough  spots 
are  inaccessible  to  men,  they  are,  for  that 
very  reason,  inhabited  by  large  troops  of 
monkeys.  Now  monkeys  are  not  only 
imitative  creatures,  but  also  very  irascible  ; 
the  silly  creatures  are  easily  provoked  into 
a  violent  passion,  and  in  that  state  they 
seek  all  the  revenge  in  their  power.  The 
people,  therefore,  get  as  near  as  they  can 
to  their  haunts,  and  provoke  them,  by  pelt- 
ing them  with  stones.  In  revenge,  the 
monkeys  break  off  large  branches  of  the 


trees,  among  which  they  clamber  and  chat- 
ter, and  with  these  they  pelt  their  enemies. 
These  are  carefully  picked  up,  and  the 
leaves  stripped  off  them  for  use. 

13.  But  these  leaves  are  not  yet  fit  for 
use.  They  must  be  dried,  curled,  and 
rolled  up,  to  make  them  as  we  see.  Those 
who  cultivate  the  tea-plant  on  a  large  scale 
have  an  apparatus  for  these  purposes.  But 
as  many  have  not,  there  are  public  drying- 
houses,  to  which  any  one  may  take  his 
leaves,  be  they  few  or  many,  and  have 
ihem  properly  cured.    These  buildings  are 


provided  with  small  stoves,  covered  with 
iron  plates,  which  are  thereby  heated  to 
the  proper  degree. 

14.  On  these  heated  plates,  a  few  pounds 
of  leaves  are  placed,  and  constantly  stirred 
with  the  fingers.  The  leaves,  being  very 
moist,  crackle,  curl,  and  dry.  When  they 
become  too  hot  for  the  hand  to  bear,  they 
are  shovelled  off  the  iron  plates  upon  mats, 
spread  on  a  table,  around  which  the  work- 
men sit,  whose  business  it  is  to  roll  them 
in  the  palms  of  their  hands,  (always  mov- 
ing them  one  way)  to  curl  them  up,  regu- 
larly and  closely.  By  repeating  this  pro- 
cess several  times,  the  leaves  are  render- 
ed perfectly  dry,  and  are  fit  to  be  placed 
in  the  warehouses  for  sale.  Yet  it  is 
reckoned  safest  to  keep  the  tea  there  a 
full  year,  before  it  is  actually  used. 

15.  The  tea  comes  to  us  packed  close 
in  wooden  chests,  which  are  lined  with  a 
very  thin  sheet  of  lead,  in  order  to  keep 
it  entirely  from  the  air,  which  would  soon 
exhale  all  its  fine  flavor.  The  tea  is 
brought  to  Canton,  in  tlie  southern  part 
of  China,  the  ojily  port  at  which  we  are 
allowed  to  trade.      There  the  merchants 


12.  Does  the  plant  grow  wild  ?  How  is  it  obtained 
from  such  inaccessible  places?  13.  Must  the 
leaves  be  dried?    How  are  they  dried  ?    14.  De- 


d^al  with  the  agents  who  purchase  it ;  and 
from  thence  it  is  brought  in  ships,  direct 
for  the  United  States. 

16.  The  Chinese  drink  t«a,  not  as  one 


scribe  the  process  further.  15.  How  is  the  tea 
brought  to  us,  and  from  whence?  16.  Do  the 
Chinese  drink  much  tea  ?   What  do  the  people 


TEA,    COFFEE,    &C. 


29 


specific  meal,  as  we  do,  but  all  day  long ; 
at  every  meal,  and  whenever  they  are 
/hirsty.  They  drink  the  pure  tea,  in  a 
strong  infusion,  without  sugar — although 
they  have  sugar — ^and  without  milk.  I 
think,  we  are  much  wiser  in  putting  to  it 
tliese  salutar)''  mixtures  ;  they  give  it  some 
Qourishment,  and  blunt,  in  a  considerable 
degree,  the  too  violent  effect  it  would  have 
upon  the  nerves.  It  is  said,  indeed,  that 
the  waters  of  China  are  unwholesome, 
and  that  their  evil  influence  is  averted  by 
the  tea.  The  people  of  Japan  sometimes 
grind  the  tea  to  a  fine  powder ;  then  they 
serve  out  warm  water  in  cups,  to  their 
guests,  each  of  whom  takes,  on  the  point 
of  a  knife,  as  much  of  the  powdered  tea 
as  is  agreeable,  throwing  it  into  the  cup, 
and,  after  stirring  it  about  thoroughly, 
drinks  it. 

17.  Those  who  have  written  upon  tea 
are  much  divided  in  their  opinions ;  some 
calling  it  little  short  of  poison,  while 
others  are  loud  in  its  praise.  Perhaps  the 
difference  of  constitutions  makes  the  chief 
difference  in  its  effects.  That  tea  is  ex- 
hilarating, every  one  knows,  especially 
after  considerable  fatigue  ;  it  seems,  there- 
fore, to  have  ready  access  to  the  nerves  ; 
for  which  reason,  nervous  and  weakly 
people,  though  very  fond  of  it,  should 
deny  themselves,  and  be  sparing  of  an  in- 
dulgence so  fascinating,  but  so  insidious. 

18.  The  story  of  the  destruction  of  the 
tea  in  Boston  harltor,  in  1773,  is  doubtless 
familiar  to  you.  A  tax  of  three  pence  a 
pound  being  retained  on  tea,  the  Ameri- 
cans resolved  to  prevent  the  importation 
of  the  article  rather  than  pay  a  duty, 
which  they  believed  to  be  unjust.  Im- 
mense cargoes  were  sent  to  America  by 
the  English  East  India  Company,  but  the 
colonists  refused  to  receive  them.    Several 


of  Japan  ?  17.  What  is  said  of  the  effect  of  tea- 
drinking.''  18.  Is  tea  anywise  connected  with 
tlie  story  of  our  revolution  ?  19.  Of  what  country 


vessels  having  arrived  in  Boston  harbor 
laden  with  tea,  a  number  of  persons,  dress- 
ed like  Indians,  went  on  board  the  ships, 
and  staved  and  emptied  into  the  sea  about 
three  hundred  and  fifty  chests. 
COFFEE. 

19.  The  coffee-tree  is  said  to  be  a  na- 
tive of  Arabia  Felix.  It  was  in  very  early 
repute  at  Mocha,  a  port  situated  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Red  Sea,  to  which  place 
coffee  was  brought  from  all  the  neigh- 
boring districts,  for  exportation.  To  this 
day,, Mocha  coffee  is  considered  the  best 
in  flavor,  as  it  is  the  most  expensive  in 
price.  Excellent  coffee  is  obtained  at  the 
island  of  Java.  Coffee  was  introduced 
into  the  West  Indies  in  1727,  and  great 
quantities  of  it  are  nowa-aised  there.  Bra- 
zil also  furnishes  an  abundance. 

20.  The  coffee-tree,  if  left  to  grow 
wild,  will  rise  to  the  height  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  feet ;  but  when  cultivated,  it  is 
found  more  convenient  to  keep  it  down  to 
five  or  six  feet.  To  do  this,  it  is  planted 
in  rows,  the  plants  about  eight  feet  distant 
from  each  other.  When  topped,  to  pre- 
vent their  rising  too  high,  they  spread  out 
their  branches  widely,  so  as  to  cover  the 
spaces  between  them. 

21.  The  flower  of  the  coffee-tree  forms 
a  cluster,  at  the  root  of  the  leaves  ;  it  is 
white,  and  very  fragrant,  and  of  a  funnel 
shape.  The  fruit,  or  berry,  looks  some 
thing  like  a  cherry,  but  is  oval.  When 
ripe,  it  is  of  a  deep  red.  They  should  be 
obtained  by  shaking  the  tree ;  then  all  that 
fall  are  ripe.  This  berry  is  conveyed  be- 
tween three  wooden  rollers,  the  pressure 
of  which  gently  cracks  it  into  its  two 
parts,  and  clears  it  from  its  outer  skin. 
There  is  still  a  thin  skin,  called  the  parch- 
ment, which  is  taken  off  by  another  mill. 
When  wholly  cieared  of  broken  bits  and 


is  coffee  said  to  be  a  native  ?  What  is  said  of 
Mocha?  Java?  The  West  Indies  ?  Brazil?  20. 
What  of  the  coffee-tree  ?  21 .  Its  flower  and  fruit  ? 


30 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


offal,  it  is  fit  for  sale.    But  you  see,  though 
brown,  it  is  not  very  dark. 

22.  Who  first  thought  of  making  a 
(hink  from  the  coflTee  berry,  cannot  now 
be  known.  It  is  said,  that  an  Arab  goat- 
herd, observing  that  his  kids  appeared 
particularly  lively  after  browsing  upon  the 
tree,  so  as  to  be  wakeful,  and  capering,  all 
the  night  after,  happened  to  mention  the 
circumstance  to  the  prior  of  a  neighbor- 
ing monastery,  who  determined  to  try  if 
it  would  not  keep  his  monks  awake,  who 
were  all  apt  to  nod  at  their  early  morning 
prayers. 

23.  Some  Mohammedan  dervishes  next 
took  to  it,  to  enable  them  to  spend  all 
night  in  their  devotions.  Studious  per- 
sons, who  wished  to  be  wakeful,  found  it 
exhilarating  and  refreshing.  From  Mecca 
it  passed  to  Cairo  ;  and  thus  it  has  spread, 
at  last,  over  the  civilized  world.  Its  use 
in  the  East,  to  counteract  opium,  is  very 
great. 

24.  The  French  traveller,  Thevenot, 
brought  it  from  Persia  into  France ;  and 
the  Greek  servant  of  an  English  Turkey 
merchant  brought  it  into  England,  and 
opened  a  house  for  the  sale  of  it.  At  first, 
it  was  called  in  Europe,  Sirup  of  the  Indian 
mulberry  J  and  was  thought  nice,  of  course. 
It  is  in  general  use  in  the  East,  and  is 
esteemed  so  much  a  necessary  of  life,  that 
it  is  one  of  the  things  which  a  Mohamme- 
dan is  obhged  to  supply  his  wife  with,  at 
all  events. 

25.  To  prepare  coflTee  for  use  it  must 
be  roasted,  and  then  ground  in  a  mill. 
The  excellence  of  coflTee  depends  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  skill  exercised  in 
roasting  it.  In  Europe,  it  is  usually  roast- 
ed in  a  cylindrical  tin  box,  perforated  with 
numerous  holes,  and  fixed  upon  a  spit, 
which  runs  lengthwise  through  the  centre, 


The  berry  ?  22.  What  is  the  story  of  the  Arab 
and  his  kids  ?  23.  The  Moharamedaa  dervishes  ? 
24.    By  whom  was  coffee  brought  to  Europe? 


and  is  turned  by  a  jack,  or  by  the  han# 
The  best  coffee  is  made  in  France. 
CHOCOLATE. 

26.  Chocolate  is  a  kind  of  cake,  or  har^ 
paste,  which  is  prepared  chiefly  from  x\i% 
pulp  of  the  cacao  or  chocolate-nut,  a  pro 
duction  of  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America.  The  cacao-tree,  both  in  size 
and  shape,  somewhat  resembles  a  youn^ 
cherry-tree,  but  separates,  near  the  ground 
into  four  or  five  stems.  The  fruit  of  tht 
cacao-tree  is  similar  to  a  cucumber  ii 
shape.  As  soon  as  it  is  ripe,  it  is  gather 
ed,  and  cut  into  slices;  the  outs  are  thei 
taken  out  and  dried.  When  perfectly  dry, 
they  are  put  into  bags,  and  exported  to 
foreign  countries.  Before  they  are  made 
into  chocolate,  these  nuts  are  generally 
parched  over  the  fire  in  an  iron  vessel. 
The  kernel  is  then  pounded  in  a  mortar, 
and  subsequently  ground  on  a  smooth, 
warm  stone.  Sometimes  a  little  arnatto, 
a  dying  drug  of  South  America,  is  added, 
and  with  the  aid  of  water,  the  whole  is 
formed  into  a  paste.  This  is  put,  whilst 
hot,  into  tin  moulds,  where,  in  a  short 
time,  it  congeals ;  and  in  this  state,  it  is 
the  chocolate  of  the  shops. 

27.  The  French  have  a  method  of  pre 
paring  chocolate,  with  sugar,  and  sell  it 
in  small  rolls  of  two  or  three  inches  in 
length.  It  has  an  agreeable  taste  when 
eaten  in  this  state,  and  mixed  with  water 
is  very  rich,  and  has  a  delightful  flavor. 
The  chocolate  thus  prepared  is  made  into 
a  multitude  of  fanciful  forms  and  sold  in 
the  shops  of  Paris.  In  the  Palais  Royal, 
you  may  see  the  windows  filled  with 
chocolate  images,  of  heathen  gods  and 
goddesses,  men  and  women,  chairs,  tables, 
pitchers,  &c.  all  of  which  are  destined  to 
be  eaten. 

28.  The   shells  of  commerce  are   the 


What  was  it  at  first  called  ?  25.  What  of  the 
preparing  of  coffee  ?  26,  What  is  chocolate  ?  De- 
scribe the  process  of  making  it.     27.  Have  the 


CIDER,  BEER,    &C. 


SI 


outside  covering  of  the  small  cacao-nut; 
Avhen  properly  prepared  this  forms  an 
agreeable  beverage 

29.  The  infusion  of  cacao-nut  is  itself  an 
article  of  much  consumption  as  a  drink,  and 
a  method  has  recently  been  introduced  of 
crushing  and  preparing  the  nut  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner,  so  that  without  the  process 
of  manufacturing  it  into  what  is  called 
chocolate,  it  makes  a  drink  of  great  rich- 
ness and  fine  flavor.  A  plantation  of  it  is  a 
long  time  coming  to  maturity,  and  is  liable 
to  be  aflfected  by  every  casualty.  When 
however  a  plantation  has  arrived  at  full 
growth  it  is  considered  a  valuable  inherit- 
ance. 

CHAP.  VII. 
CIDER,  BEER,  &c. 

CIDER. 

1.  Cider  is  a  well  known  drink  extract- 
ed from  the  juice  of  apples.  The  prepara- 
tion of  this  liquor  forms  an  interesting  por- 
tion of  agricultural  labor  in  this  country. 
It  is  also  an  article  of  considerable  com- 
merce. The  first  process  is  to  collect  the 
fruit  into  heaps,  where  it  ferments,  and 
becomes  perfectly  ripe.  The  apples  are 
then  taken  to  the  mill,  and  being  ground, 
are  made  to  yield  a  liquor,  which  is  after- 
wards put  into  casks,  and  prepared  for 
use.  The  best  cider  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  is  said  to  be  that  of  New 
Jersey.  In  the  country  towns  of  New 
England,  cider  is  used  in  almost  every 
house.  In  common  seasons,  it  is  worth 
little  more  than  a  dollar  a  barrel.  It  is  a 
slightly  intoxicating  liquor,  but  is  seldom 
taken  in  a  quantity  sufficient  to  intoxicate. 

PERRY. 

2.  Perry  is  a  beverage  made  from  pears, 
by  a  process  similar  to  the  manufacture 

French  any  peculiar  method  of  preparing  choco- 
iate  ?  28.  What  of  shells  ?  29.  What  of  the 
cacao-nut  ? 

].  What  can  you  say  of  cider.'  Is  it  much  used 


of  cider.  It  is  a  wholesome  and  pleasant 
liquor,  and  has  sometimes  been  made  so 
excellent  as  to  pass  for  Champagne.  Pears 
should  be  fully  ripe  before  they  are  ground. 
Crab  apples  are  frequently  mixed  with  the 
pears,  and  are  said  to  improve  the  perry. 

BEER,  ALE,  &c 

3.  Beer  is  a  generic  term  for  drink  ex- 
tracted from  malt.  It  is  a  very  ancient 
liquor,  and  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  the  Egyptians.  Malt  is  prepared  by  a 
peculiar  process  from  barley. 

4.  Brewing  is  the  art  of  gaining  from 
malt  all  its  sugary  sweetness,  and,  by  fer- 
menting it,  making  it  into  a  soit  of  vinous 
liquor. 

5.  The  general  mode  of  operation  is  as 
follows.  The  first  part  is  mashing.  This 
consists  of  pouring  water  which  has  boil- 
ed, but  is  now  cooled  down  to  a  proper 
heat,  upon  the  ground  malt,  in  a  deep 
open  vessel,  or  tun,  and  stirring  it  well 
about.  If  the  water  were  boiling,  it  would 
not  dissolve  it  properly.  When  it  has 
been  mashed  for  two  or  three  hours,  the 
liquor,  sweet-wort  as  it  is  called,  is  drawn 
off.  Hot  water  is  a  second  time  poured 
upon  the  malt,  and  drawn  off.  Also  a 
third  time.  If  you  mix  the  two  first  worts 
together,  they  will  make  good  ale ;  the 
third  will  then  be  small  beer.  If  you  mix 
the  two  last  together,  they  will  make  excel- 
lent table  beer;  and  the  first  wort  alone  will 
be  capital  ale. 

6.  When  all  the  strength  is  thus  gained 
out  of  the  malt,  the  liquor  is  then  to  be 
boiled  up  with  a  proper  proportion  of  hops. 
The  worts  alone  would  make  a  ropy  liquor, 
which  would  in  a  few  weeks  turn  sour: 
the  hops  tend  to  break  the  viscidity  of  the 
ale;  to  give  it  that  flavor  of  bitterness, 
which  is  so  pleasant  to  the  palate;  and  to 


in  New  England  ?  2.  What  is  perry  ?  3.  What 
do  you  mean  by  the  word  beer  ?  4.  What  is  the 
art  of  brewing  ?  5.  Describe  the  mode  of  opera- 
tion.   6.  When  th*»  strength  of  the  malt  is  ex- 


82 


BOOK    OF     COMMERCE 


make  it  keep  for  months,  or  years,  without 
turning  sour. 

7.  After  it  is  boiled  with  hops  it  must  be 
worked,  that  is,  made  to  ferment.  The  wort 
must  be  in  a  proper  state  of  warmth  for 
this :  too  much  heat  or  cold  will  spoil  it. 
A  quantity  of  yeast,  spread  upon  a  toast,  is 
set  a  swimming  in  the  middle  of  the  cooler. 

8.  When  the  fermentation  is  evidently 
getting  on,  then  the  whole  liquor  is  to  be 
tunned,  that  is,  put  into  the  vessels  in 
which  it  is  to  stand,  till  drawn  off  for  use. 
These  vessels  are  filled,  and  as  the  fermen- 
tation proceeds,  it  throws  over  at  the  bung- 
hole  a  brown  froth,  which  is  yeast,  fit  for 
setting  other  beer  at  work,  but  especially 
useful  in  making  bread. 

9.  The  art  of  making  the  ale  good  will 
now  consist  in  knowing  when  to  stop  the 
fermentation.  Were  you  to  close  the 
bungs  of  the  vessels  at  first,  the  force  of 
the  gas  set  at  liberty  by  the  ferment  would 
burst  the  vessels.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
it  were  not  to  be  bunged  up  till  it  had 
quite  done  working,  the  liquor  would  be 
flat,  as  all  its  spirit  and  strength  would  have 
escaped.  The  object  is  to  bung  it  up  as 
soon  as  the  first  violence  is  over,  and  keep 
in  all  the  spirit  you  can  without  bursting 
the  cask. 

10.  After  awhile,  the  liquor,  which  is 
now  thick,  or  turbid,  will  fine  itself;  that 
is,  all  the  mash  of  the  malt  will  sink  down 
into  lees,  a  sort  of  mud,  at  the  bottom  ;  and 
the  body  of  the  ale  will  become  clear  and 
sparkling.  The  stronger  the  ale  is,  the 
longer  must  it  be  kept  before  it  will  be 
fine  enough  to  drink:  three  months,  or 
even  twelve. 

11.  The  general  principles  of  brewing 
ale  have  now  been  stated.  Beer  is  similar 
in  its  process,  and  so  is  porter ;  the  chief 
difference  lies  in  the  materials  put  in  to 


hausted,  what  is  done?  7.  After  it  is  boiled  with 
hops?  8.  Describe  the  continuation  of  the  pro- 
ges!?.    9.  How  is  the  ale  now  improved  ?  10.  How 


give  it  either  color  or  peculiar  flavor.  Tho 
brewers  are  said  to  have  secrets,  in  theso 
respects,  which  they  do  not  wish  the  pub- 
lic to  know.  There  are  many  places  in 
New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  where 
beer  and  ale  of  excellent  quality  are  made, 
and  the  brewing  of  them  is  quite  extensive 
in  the  United  States. 

PORTER. 
12.  Porter  is  said  to  receive  its  deep 
brown  from  Spanish  liquorice,  or  froit 
burnt  sugar.  The  English  Porter  is  gen 
erally  esteemed  superior  to  that  of  any  othe^ 
country  ;  but  it  is  made  in  nearly  equa 
perfection  in  America. 

CHAP.  VIII. 

WINES. 

1.  A  great  number  of  vegetable  sub 
stances  may  be  made  to  afl^or.d  wine,  ai 
currants,  cherries,  &c  ;  but  that  obtained 
from  the  fruit  of  the  vine  is  the  best  and 
most  drank.  There  are  many  sorts  of 
wine,  because  there  are  many  countries 
where  the  vines  grow  luxuriantly ;  and 
each  has  its  own  peculiar  flavor.  Some- 
times this  excellence  is  confined  to  a  single 
hill ;  and  sometimes  it  extends  over  a 
whole  country. 

2.  Tokay  Wine,  for  instance,  is,  if  genu- 
ine, the  produce  of  only  a  small  district  in 
Hungary ;  the  whole  of  which  is  (or  ought 
to  be)  reserved  for  the  emperor's  use 
However,  Tokay  wine,  or  something  hav- 
ing that  name,  may  be  bought  at  any  time 
in  our  large  cities,  and  in  any  quantity. 

3.  Madeira.  The  true  Madeira  wine, 
is  made  at  Madeira,  an  island  lying  north- 
west of  the,  coast  of  Africa.  As  the 
wine  of  Madeira  stands  so  high  ia  repute, 
a  little  account  of  the  vineyards  in  that 
island,  and  the  mode  of  cultivation,  may 
amuse  you.     In  every  spot,  where  the  soil 


long  must  the  ale  be  kept  ?    11.  What  is  said  of 
beer  and  porter .'' 

1.   From  what  fruits  are  the   most  esteemed 


33 


is  suitable,  and  a  due  exposure  to  the  sun 
affords  sufficient  warmth,  the  vines  are 
planted.  Low  stone  walls  enclose  the  sev- 
eral walks,  which  cross  each  other  from 
one  side  of  the  vineyard  to  the  other. 
These  walks  have  a  kind  of  trellis- work  of 
laths  and  bamboos,  which  almost  meet  at 
the  top,  and  render  them  ielightfully  shady. 
It  is  the  ripening  of  the  grapes  in  the 
shade,  which  is  said  to  give  them  their 
peculiar  flavor.  The  vin^^s  are  thus  sup- 
ported ;  and  the  keepers  can  clean  the 
ground  of  every  weed  with  the  utmost  ease. 
Every  vineyard  has  a  plantation  of  bam- 
boos adjoining,  as  the  grapes  will  not  prove 
excellent  without  this  shade  and  support. 
The  external  hedges  which  defend  these 
vineyards  are  composed  of  the  prickly  pear, 
myrtles,  brambles,  and  wild  roses :  so  that 
the  whole  country  has  the  appearance  of  a 
garden.  • 

4.  Besides  what  may  be  consumed  at 
home,  the  islanders  export  sometimes  forty 
thousand  pipes  of  wine  in  a  year ;  each 
worth  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
dollars.  Some  of  our  East-India  ships 
take  a  great  quantity  in  their  outward 
voyage,  and  bring  it  back  to  America.  The 
voyage  and  the  warmth  ripen  and  im- 
prove the  wine  much.  In  its  native  state, 
as  brought  immediately  from  the  island, 
Madeira  wine  is  worth  very  little.  There 
are,  besides  this  description  of  the  wine. 
Burgundy  Madeira,  Sicily  3Iadeira,  and 
Malmsey  Madeira,  a  white,  luscious,  and 
highly  palatable  wine.  The  vine  which 
produces  malmsey  wine,  properly  so  called, 
is  a  native  of  Malvasia,  a  small  Grecian 
island  where  its  cultivation  is  at  present  but 
little  attended  to. 

5.  At  Teneriffe,  one  of  the  Canary  Isles, 
great  quantities  of  good  wine  are  made, 
which  may  be  obtained  at  less  than  half 


wines  obtained  ?   2.  What  of  Tokay  ?  3.  Madeira  ? 

"What  is  said  of  the  vineyards  in  Madeira  ?    4.  Is 

muclT  wine  exported  from  Madeira  ?   5.  What  of 

3 


the  price  of  Madeira ;  and  to  some  palates 
it  is  more  agreeable. 

6.  In  Madeira,  the  grapes  are  gathered 
when  ripe,  and  put  into  wooden  vessels 
Then,  to  press  out  the  juice,  the  vintagers 
strip  off  their  jackets,  and  their  shoes,  and 
get  into  the  vessels  ;  there,  working  with 
their  hands,  and  feet,  and  elbows,  they 
press  and  squeeze,  till  every  grape  is 
crushed. 

7.  When  they  have  obtained  the  juice 
clear  from  the  stalks,  it  does  not  want 
sugar ;  for  the  grapes  are  so  very  ripe  and 
sweet,  that  the  liquor  presently  ferments. 
It  is  the  sugary  substance  in  the  grape, 
which,  by  fermenting,  evolves  a  vinous 
spirit,  and  produces,  after  long  standing, 
(which  ripens  and  clears  it)  the  liquor  we 
call  wine. 

8.  Port  Wine.  What  we  call  Red  Portj 
comes  from  Oporto,  a  city  of  Portugal. 
The  vines  grow  in  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. The  quantity  exported  annually  is 
said  to  be  eighty  thousand  pipes.  It  is 
a  trade  of  considerable  importance  to  the 
Portuguese.  Some  of  the  wine  merchants 
at  Oporto  have  cellars  which  will  contain 
six  or  seven  thousand  pipes  ;  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  inhabitants  employ  themselves 
as  coopers. 

9.  Spanish  Wine.  What  is  with  us 
called  Sherry,  comes,  if  genuine,  from 
Xeres  in  Spain,  where  forty  thousand 
pipes  of  it  are  annually  made.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  this  wine,  the  pale  and  the 
golden.  The  Sherry  wines  are  shipped  for 
the  most  part  at  Cadiz. 

10.  Other  Spanish  wines  are  in  great 
request.  Mountain  wine  is  made  from 
the  vines  around  Malaga.  It  has  this 
name  if  white ;  the  red  wine,  made  in  the 
same  district,  is  in  repute  with  us  as  very 
luscious,  under  the    name  of  Tent  Wine, 


Canary  or  Teneriffe  wine  ?  6.  What  is  done  with 
the  grapes  in  Madeira  ?  7.  Is  sugar  needed  to 
sweeten  the  wine  ?     8.  Whence  do  we   obtair 


34 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE. 


called  there  Vine  tinto^  that  is,  tinted,  or 
colored  wine.  There  are  fourteen  thou- 
sand wine-presses  in  this  province,  so  that 
the  produce  must  be  immense. 

11.  Vines  in  Italy.  The  plains  of 
Lombardy,  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  part 
of  Italy,  are  nearly  one  continued  vine- 
yard. The  vine  in  this  country  too  appears 
with  unusual  luxuriance,  not  being  tied  to 
stakes,  and  cut  down  to  dwarf  plants,  as 
in  France ;  but  suffered  to  grow  as  it 
pleases,  climbing  up  the  tallest  elms,  and 
hanging  in  rich  festoons  from  tree  to  tree, 
all    about,    and    almost    encumbering   the 


traveller's    pathway.      The    sight    is    ex- 
tremely picturesque  and  gratifying. 

12.  When  the  vine  runs  to  this  ex- 
tent, it  sometimes  bears  bunches  in  propor- 
tion. Something  of  this  kind  must  have 
been  common  in  Canaan,  when  the  spies 
brought  home  one  cluster,  so  hirge  as  to 
be  borne  between  two  persons  on  a  staft". 

13.  French  Wines.  But  the  most  luxu- 
rious wine  countries  are  in  France.  In 
the  South,  the  vineyard  fortns  the  farm, 
and  the  produce  constitutes  the  grand 
liarvest,  called  the  vintage ;  a  joyous  sea- 
son, as  well  it  may  be,  especially  if  the 
weather  has  been  favorable  to  the  al)un- 
dance  and  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

14.  Champagne  is  a  wine  produced  in 
the   northeastern  part  of  France,  from  a 


Port  wine?    9.  Sherry  ?     10.  Malaga?     11,12. 
What  of  vines  in  Italy  ?    13.  What  of  French 


province  which  was  once  called  by  tha^ 
name.  The  wine  is  of  exquisite  flavor, 
rich,  and  racy ;  it  is  in  high  repute,  and 
bears  a  considerable  price. 

15.  The  country  once  called  Burgundy^ 
lies  south  of  Champagne,  and  gives  its 
name  to  a  wine  much  celebrated  for  its 
beautiful  color  and  delightful  flavor. 

16.  Claret  is  a  French  wine  of  a  pale 
red,  as  its  name  implies,  brisk  and  spark- 
ling. It  comes  from  the  country  about 
the  Garonne,  on  the  western  coast  of 
France. 

17.  A  journey  through  the  wine  coun- 
tries of  France,  in  the  vintage  season, 
is  very  gladdening.  In  the  eastern  and 
southern  departments  especially,  the  vines 
are  seen  every  where,  crowning  the  warm 
er  slopes  of  the  sunny  hills,  league  after 
league.  The  vines  do  not  need  a  house 
or  a  wall  to  assist  in  ripening  the  grapes ; 
the  warmth  of  the  atmosphere  is  suflUcient, 
during  the  summer  months.  The  vines 
are  kept  short.  They  are  planted  within 
five  or  six  feet  of  each  other,  in  regular 
rows.  As  they  grow,  two  stakes,  about 
four  or  five  feet  high  from  the  ground, 
must  be  planted  to  each  vine,  at  a  littlo 
distance  to  the  right  and  left.  To  these 
stakes  the  principal  shoots  of  the  vines  are 
tied  ;  all  others,  which  will  not  tie  in,  are 
cut  off  to  two  or  three  eyes,  (as  they  call 
the  buds,)  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
branch.  By  this  means,  none  of  the  fruit 
can  trail  upon  the  ground,  for  that  would 
rot  and  spoil  the  grapes. 

18.  Very  carefully  is  all  the  ground  be 
tween  the  rows  dug,  at  the   proper  sea 

I  sons  ;  and  kept  clear  of  weeds,  from  tho 
time  that  the  vines  begin  to  bud.  And 
continually  is  the  pruning-knife  used,  to 
cut  off  all  the  shoots  which  are  not  intend- 
ed to  be  left  for  fruit ;  in  order  that  the 
whole  strength  of  the  plant  may  be  forced 


wines  ?    14.  Champagne  ?     15.  Burgundy  ?     16. 
Claret?    17.  What  is  said  of  the  vintage  season 


DISTILLED    SPIRITS. 


35 


into  the  branches  which  remain,  to  make 
the  grapes  large  and  fine. 

19.  This  season  may  well  be  anxious, 
because,  not  unfrequently,  storms  of  thun- 
der, rain,  and  hail,  arise,  in  a  manner  so 
fierce  as  to  destroy  all  the  peasant's  hopes 
at  once  ;  the  labor  of  the  whole  season 
is  frustrated  in  a  single  hour.  The  ca- 
lamity is  ruinous.  The  whole  produce  is, 
for  that  year,  cut  off;  and  nothing  but 
poverty  and  suffering,  all  through  the  win- 
ter are  before  the  miserable  inhabitants. 

20.  If,  however,  the  season  continue 
propitious  and  the  vintage  sets  in  pleasant- 
ly, then  the  whole  country  is  alive  ;  lads 
md  lasses,  with  the  old  and  young  of  both 
«exes,  join  their  labors  with  the  greatest 
^llity.  The  vines  are  stripped  of  their 
purple  clusters,  which  are  borne  home  tri- 
umphantly  in  baskets,  or  in  wagons,  by 


the  singing,  dancing,  revelling,  troops  of 
villagers,  exhibiting,  at  the  present  day, 
something  like  the  Bacchanalian  vagaries 
of  heathen  times;  the  girls  dressed  up  with 
flowers,  and  the  lads  with  vine  leaves.  The 
wagons,  fantastically  decked  with  boughs, 
are  drawn  by  oxen,  and  attended  by  the 
shouting  multitude,  with  all  the  music  the 
Tillage  can  afford,  making  the  scene  highly 
interesting  and  exhilarating,  not  only  to 
Those  engaged  in  it,  but  even  to  a  looker- 


in  France  ?  18.  Are  the  vines  carefully  tended  ? 
19  Are  the  hopes  of  the  vintagers  oflen  destroy- 
ed ?  20.  If  the  season  is  propitious .'  21.  What 
of  Hock '  22.  What  of  the  color  of  wines :  What 


on.  It  is  the  hey-dey  of  rural  festivity. 
The  flowing  bowl  circulates;  abounding 
plenty  enlivens ;  and  the  very  labor  itself 
rejoices  the  heart. 

21.  Hock.  Hock  is  a  German  wine  of 
excellent  flavor  when  old.  The  best  comes 
from  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  whence  it  is 
exported  in  casks  called  aumes. 

22.  Color  of  Wine,  &c.  To  give  a 
deep  red  color  to  wine,  it  is  necessary  to 
make  use  of  black  grapes.  The  color  of 
wine  is,  however,  often  artificial.  Red- 
wood, logwood,  elder  berries  &c.  are  used 
in  dying  it.  It  is  sometimes  the  practice 
to  throw  sugar  of  lead  and  alum  into 
sour  wine  in  order  to  sweeten  it.  These 
substances  are  extremely  injurious. 

23.  Dealers  distinguish  wine  into  two 
general  descriptions ;  namely,  sweet  or 
luscious  ivines,  and  dry  wines,  or  such  as 
are  not  sweet. 

CHAP.  IX. 
DISTILLED  SPIRITS. 

BRANDY. 
1.  The  difference  between  distilled  and 
fermented  liquors  is  important.  Wine 
is  fermented  ;  in  this  process  an  ardent 
spirit,  called  alcohol,  is  generated ;  this 
mingles  through  the  whole  substance  of 
the  liquor,  ripens  by  age,  and  makes  it 
wine.  The  purpose  of  distillation  is  to 
separate  this  ardent  spirit  from  the  watery 
parts  of  the  wine  ;  and  thus  produce  a 
liquor  much  more  filled  with  alcohol,  in 
which  it  is  concentrated,  and  bears  a  much 
greater  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  fluid. 
In  order  to  this,  it  is  put  into  an  apparatus 
called  a  still,  and  subjected  to  considera- 
ble heat.  This  heat  presently  raises  the 
spirituous  part,  or  the  alcohol,  into  vapor, 
which  rises,  and  would  be  lost  in  the  at- 


is  sometimes  done  in  order  to  sweeten  wme' 
23.   What  is  meant  by  dry  wines .' 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  distilled  and 
fermented  liquors  ?    3,  4,  5.  Describe  the  procea* 


36 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE. 


mospliere,  were  not  the  apparatus  contriv- 
ed so  as  to  condense,  and  retain  it. 

2.  The  vaj)ors  rise  to  escape  by  a  nar- 
row lube,  which  is  carried  to  a  great 
length  through  a  large  quantity  of  water  ; 
the  pipe  is  cooled  by  this  chill,  the  steam 
is  condensed  into  drops,  and,  at  the  ex- 


tremity, runs  out  in  a  stream  of  spirituous 
liquor.  The  liquor,  treated  thus  repeat- 
edly, will  lose  most  of  its  watery  particles, 
and,  at  last,  become  pure  spirit,  called  in 
commerce,  s^iiit  of  wine. 

3.  Distillation  produces  alcohol  very 
similar  in  its  properties,  let  the  substance 
distilled  from  be  what  it  may.  In  England, 
the  spirit  is  usually  produced  from  malt. 
The  specific  flavor,  and  color  are  given 
afterwards  in  a  process  called  Rectification. 

4.  As  we  are  speaking  of  French  brandy, 
it  is  proper  to  observe,  that  this  is  distilled 
from  wines.  Wines  beginning  to  get  tart 
will  do.  Nay,  even  the  grape-stalks,  and 
the  refuse,  will  yet  afford  the  brandy 
spirit,  if  treated  properly. 

5.  All  this  refuse  used  to  be  cast  away 
as  worthless ;  but  they  have  learned  to  use 
it.  After  the  juice  has  been  well  squeezed 
from  the  stalks  and  husks,  the  whole  mass 
is  lightly  loosened,  and  put  into  vessels, 
with  a  certain  proportion  of  water ;  it  is 
then  covered  over  with  clay,  to  prevent 
any  of  the  fermentation  from  escaping  ;  in 
this  confined  state,  it  is  kept  four  or  five 

of  distillation.    6.  In  what  part  of  France  is  the 


weeks;    the  whole  is  then   distilled,  and 
the  produce  of  spirit  is  considerable. 

6.  The  part  of  France  where  brandy 
is  said  to  be  produced  of  the  finest  kind 
and  best  flavor,  is  in  the  western  borders, 
about  Nantz  ;  and  the  town  of  Cognac  is 
famous  for  it.  It  is  at  first  colorless,  and 
is  said  to  attain  its  tint  from  the  wood,  by 
standing  a  year  or  two  in  the  vessel.  This 
long  keeping  tends  also,  by  a  continued 

iiternal  commotion,  to  ripen  or  soften  Jr, 
and  take  oflT  much  of  that  fiery  quality, 
which  burns  the  throat  when  brandies  are 
new.  It  is  said,  that  not  less  than  fifty 
thousand  pipes  of  brandy  are  made  every 
year  in  France. 

7.  The  intemperate  use  of  brandy  and 
other  spirituous  liquors  is  productive  of 
the  most  injurious  eflfects  both  to  the  body 
and  soul  of  man.  The  amount  of  misery 
and  disease  it  has  caused  in  the  world, 
is  incalculable.  The  strongest  constitu- 
tions have  been  enervated  and  destroyed  by 
its  pernicious  influence ;  and  the  noblest 
minds  have  been  prostrated  by  its  de- 
grading power. 

GIN. 

8.  The  name  of  Geneva  is  given  to  this 
liquor  because,  originally,  it  was  flavored 
with  juniper  berries,  the  French  word  for 
which  is  genevie.  It  was  in  Holland  that 
this  liquor  was  first  made  ;  and  the  only 
true  Geneva  is  distilled  there  now.  The 
English  gin  is  nothing  more  than  malt 
spirits  flavored  with  oil  of  turpentine , 
and  they  are  distilled  together.  It  is  a 
destructive  drink  among  the  lower  classes. 

RUM. 

9.  Rum  is  a  spirituous  liquor  distilled 
from  the  sugar-cane.  When  the  juice  of 
the  cane  has  been  forcibly  pressed  out  for 
sugar,  the  mashed  cane  and  all  the  refuse 
are  put  into  the  still.  The  produce  is  a 
very  powerful  spirit,  called  Rum.  This 
spirit  is  mixed  with  much  of  the  oil  of 


best  brandy  produced  .-'  8.  What  of  ^rin  ?  9.  Rum  ? 


ARTICLES    or    CLOTHING. 


3? 


the  sugar-cane,  from  which  it  receives  its 
peculiar  flavor.  Sometimes  in  distilling 
the  rum,  a  few  pine  apples  are  added. 
The  rum  manufactured  in  Jamaica  is 
highly  valued.  Rum  is  distilled  from 
molasses  in  great  quantities  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  exported  to  Europe  and  other 
rountries  in  hogsheads.  This  deleterious 
ipirit  is  sold  so  cheap  in  America,  that 
die  wages  of  a  day's  labor  will  purchase 
.hree  gallons  of  it.  Three-fourths  of  the 
;)overty  and  crime  that  lead  to  the  alms- 
louse  and  the  penitentiary,  spring  from 
Jiis  fruitful  source. 

WHISKEY,  &c. 

10.  Whiskey  is  obtained  by  distillation 
/rom  corn,  rye,  wheat,  sugar  or  molasses, 
Uiough  generally  from  the  former.  It  is 
made  in  great  quantities  in  Ireland  and 
Scotland ;  as  well  as  in  Ohio  and  some  of 
the  middle  and  western  states. 

ARRACK. 

11.  Arrack  is  an  East  India  liquor,  pro- 
cured from  rice,  when  made  at  Batavia ; 
and  from  the  juice  of  cocoa-nuts  by  the 
people  of  Goa. 

12.  There  are  various  kinds  of  cordials, 
such  as  Noyau,  Annisseed,  Mareschino, 
&.C.,  which  are  considered  articles  of  com- 
merce. But  the  basis  of  these  liquors  is 
most  Commonly  some  one  of  the  above 
spirits,  and  they  are  flavored  and  colored 
by  vegetable  substances.  Brandy  and  rum 
are  often  impregnated  with  the  juice  of 
the  common  wild  cherry,  and  in  this  state 
they  are  much  drank. 

CHAP.  X. 

ARTICLES  OF  CLOTHING. 

WOOL. 
1.  The  fleeces  of  sheep  seem  to  have 
been  the   first   resource    of  mankind   for 


clothing.      Adam  and  Eve  had  skins  for 
their  garments,  after  sin  had  made  a  cover- 


ing necessary.  The  art  of  forming  cloth  of 
the  wool  is  very  ancient ;  for  Naamah,  sis- 
ter of  Tubal  Cain,  of  whom  we  read  Ge- 
nesis^ iv.  22,  is  said  by  the  Jewish  writers 
to  have  invented  spinning  and  weaving ; 
and  it  is  most  likely  that  wool  was  the 
first  material. 

2.  In  the  book  of  Leviticus^  we  find 
distinct  mention  both  of  the  warp  and  of 
the  woof;  which  describes  the  woollen 
cloth  to  be  made  as  in  modern  times. 

3.  The  wool  of  Attica,  in  Greece,  ana 
of  Tarentum  in  Italy,  were  in  high  esteem 
with  the  ancients.  And  garments  were 
dyed  purple  by  the  people  of  Tyre,  of 
great  value  for  magistrates  and  kings. 
That  was  the  Imperial  purple^  which  none 
else  might  wear. 

4.  There  has  been  a  considerable  trade 
therefore  always  in  an  article  so  necessary 
and  so  costly.  From  Syria  these  commo- 
dities were  brought,  in  great  abundance, 
♦owards  Europe. 

5.  The  Roman  toga  was  a  woollen  gar- 
ment, white,  fine  in  its  texture,  and  ample 
in  its  folds.  The  best  materials,  from  all 
their  provinces,  were  drawn  to  the  metro- 
polis. There  alone  was  to  be  found  the 
wealth  which  could  pay  for  every  thing 
luxurious. 


10.  Whiskey?     11.  Arrack?     12.  What  of  cor- 
dials ? 
1,  2.  What  is  said  of  the  antiquity  of  woollen  i 

4# 


cloth  ?  3.  The  purple  garments  of  Tyre  ?  4.  The 
trade  in  this  article  ?  5  The  Roman  toga  ?  6. 
Did  the  Romans  establish  tlie  manufacture  in 


38 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


6.  Wherever  the  Romans  took  up  their 
abode,  they  brought  and  established  some 
of  their  arts ;  so  that  the  nations  which 
they  conquered  were  in  fact  enriched.  In 
Britain,  Winchester  was  the  seat  of  their 
woollen  manufacture  ;  and  here  it  was  con- 
ducted on  a  scale  sufficient  to  supply  their 
army.  The  business  was  not  wholly  lost, 
when,  in  the  fifth  century,  they  abandoned 
Britain  ;  yet  it  went  very  much  into  decay  ; 
for  we  find  one  of  the  most  important  acts 
of  Edward  III.,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  (a 
thousand  years  after  the  Romans  left  Eng- 
land,) was  the  inviting  over  from  Flanders, 
and  establishing  in  England,  wool-comber^ 
and  weavers,  who  could  teach  his  sub- 
jects how  to  work  up  their  own  excellent 
fleeces. 

7.  It  seems,  that  the  wool  trade  was  all 
against  them  at  that  period.  Merchants 
from  the  Netherlands  used  to  come  over 
to  England  to  buy  up  all  the  fine  un- 
wrought  wools,  which  they  took  home  ; 
and  when  they  had  woven,  dyed,  and 
dressed  them,  they  returned  with  their 
cloths,  and  sold  to  the  English  their  own 
fleeces,  at  an  exorbitant  advance  of  price. 
Edward,  on  a  visit  to  Flanders,  saw  in 
what  a  princely  style  these  merchants  and 
manufacturers  lived  ;  and  he  thought,  and 
thought  truly,  that  if  his  people  could  be 
taught  to  work  up  their  own  wools,  much 
money  might  be  detained  in  the  kingdom, 
which  now  went  abroad,  to  th-e  great  im- 
poverishment of  his  own  people,  and  the 
enriching  of  foreigners.  His  scheme  suc- 
ceeded ;  and  the  Enghsh  became  so  ex- 
pert in  the  manufacture,  that,  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  time,  a  law  was  made  prohibit- 
ing entirely  all  exportation  of  unmanufac- 
tured wool. 

8.  Yorkshire  is  now  the  principal  seat 
of  the  English  woollen  manufactures,  espe- 


Brltam  ?  7.  What  induced  Edward  to  encourage 
the  manufacture  ?  8.  What  is  now  the  chief  seat 
of  the  English  woollen  manufactures  f    9.  How 


cially  of  broad  cloths ;  and  Leeds  is  the 
central  mart,  where  most  of  the  wholesale 
business  is  transacted. 

9.  It  is  supposed  there  are  about  thirty 
million  of  sheep  in  the  kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  ;  the  wool  of  them,  on  an  average, 
is  worth  about  seven  millions  of  pounds 
sterling,  the  value  of  whicli  is  increased, 
by  manufacturing  skill  and  labor,  to  be- 
tween twenty  and  thirty  njillions  sterling. 
To  this  may  be  added  five  millions  pounds 
weigiit  of  foreign  wool.  This  great  manu- 
facture is  supposed  to  give  employment 
and  maintenance  to  more  than  three  mil- 
lions of  persons,  men,  women,  boys,  and 
girls. 

10.  Spanish  wool,  at  least  that  of  the 
merino  breed,  seems  to  be  in  favor,  as  of 
the  finest  texture.  Those  sheep  crop  the 
short  sweet  grass  of  the  mountains,  and 
their  wool,  though  not  so  abundant,  is 
of  a  more  delicate  quality.  The  Span- 
ish breed  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  a 
few  sent  as  a  present  from  England,  by 
Henry  II. 

11.  The  manufacture  of  wool  in  the 
United  States  is  very  considerable,  and  is 
yearly  improving  and  increasing.  The 
sheep  of  New  England  produce  a  wool  of 
a  very  excellent  quality,  which  is  woven 
into  various  kinds  of  fabrics.  Fine*  broad 
cloth  is  woven  at  Lowell,  and  at  several 
other  of  our  manufacturing  towns. 

12.  The  fabrics  formed  of  wool  are  very 
various.  The  superfine  broad  cloth,  of 
which  our  coats  are  made,  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  list;  then  come  narrow  cloths 
which  are  of  a  coarser  texture.  Flannels 
blankets  &c.  are  also  made  of  wool :  indeed 
so  many  are  its  uses,  that  it  would  bo 
tedious  to  enumerate  them.  Many  elegant 
fabrics  are  formed  by  a  small  mixture  of 
wool   with    other    articles.     Poplins    and 


many  sheep  are  estimated  to  be  now  in  Great 
Britain?  10.  What  of  the  Spanish  wool,?  .11. 
What  of  the  manufacture  of  wool  in  the  United 


ARTICLES    OF    CLOTHING. 


39 


iistres  have  some  silk  in  them ;  and  some 
flannels  have  a  little  cotton  mingled. . 
SHAWLS. 

13.  The  finest  shawls  are  imported  from 
tne  East  Indies.  Cachemere  is  the  great 
seat  of  the  manufacture  of  those  beautiful 
shawls,  which  bear  the  name  of  this  pro- 
vince. These  shawls  are  of  two  sorts: 
those  of  the  first  sort  are  made  from  the 
wool  of  the  country,  which  is  finer  than 
lliat  of  Spain  ;  and  those  of  the  second  sort 
from  the  wool,  or  rather  hair,  taken  from 
the  breasts  of  the  wild  goats,  which  inhabit 
Great  Thibet.  The  shawls  of  the  second 
sort  are  much  dearer  than  those  of  the  first, 
no  beaver  being  more  delicate  than  they 
are.  Tn  Russia  shawls  of  an  excellent 
quality  are  made,  called  Moscow  shawls. 

CAMLETS. 

14.  Camlets  are  of  various  colors  and 
sorts ;  some  of  goats'  hair,  both  in  the  warp 
and  woof ;  others,  in  which  the  warp  is  of 
hair,  and  the  woof  half  hair,  and  half  silk. 
Camlets  are  manufactured  both  in  France 
and  Great  Britain. 

BOMBAZINE,  &c. 

15.  This  is  a  kind  of  silk  and  woollen 
stuff  originally  manufactured  at  Milan, 
and  thence  sent  into  France  and  other 
countries.  It  is  now  made  in  Great  Britain 
as  well  as  in  this  country.  Kersey  is  a 
species  of  coarse  woollen  stuff  usually 
woven  in  ribs.  Long  wools  are  those 
mostly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  this 
article. 

CHAP.  XL 

ARTICLES  OF  CLOTHING  &c, -Continued. 

COTTON. 

1.  Cotton  is  a  soft  vegetable  down,  which 

is  the  product  of  a  small  tree,  about  the 

size  of  a  currant  bush.     It  makes  a  light, 

cheap  and  cleanly  garment ;  and,  in  many 


States?     12.  The  fabrics  formed  of  wool?     13. 
Shawls  .'    14,  Camlets  ?    15.  Bombazine  ' 


respects,  is  preferable  to  wool:  although 
wool  will  always  be  in  esteem,  where 
warmth  is  the  especial  convenience  sought 
after. 

2.  The  cotton  plant,  which  has  become 
of  so  much  importance  to  our  manufac- 
tures, would  naturally  grow  to  eight  or  ten 
feet  in  height ;  but  the  cultivators  find  that 
it  never  bears  its  downy  fruit  in  so  great 


abundance  as  when  it  is  kept  to  about  foui 
feet.  In  the  cotton  plantations,  the  plot  is 
regularly  laid  out,  and  holes  ai-e  made  for 
the  seeds,  at  the  distance  of  seven  or  eight 
feet  from  each  other.  Into  each  of  these, 
several  seeds  are  dropped,  though  all  are 
not  suffered  to  grow,  the  weaker  ones  being 
pulled  up  as  soon  as  the  planter  can  discern 
which  are  likely  to  thrive  best;  so  that 
only  two  or  three  are  left  in  each  spot. 
As  these  plants  grow,  ihey  are  pruned,  as 
no  fruit  would  appear  either  soon,  or  plen- 
tiful, if  they  were  allowed  to  run  wild. 
This  pruning  process,  anrl  gathering  of  the 
crops,  continues  about  three  years,  when 
the  plant  is  so  worn  out,  that  a  new  one  is 
more  productive.  The  cotton  fruit  is  gath- 
ered in  March  or  April. 

3.  This  fruit  is  a  brown  pod  bearing  a 
seed,  enveloped  in  a  downy  covering.  The 
seeds  are  separated  by  a  machine  called 
the  cotton  gin,  and  the  woolly  covering, 
which  is  the  cotton  itself,  is  preserved  for 
sale. 

!      1.  What  is  cotton  '    2.  What  is  said  of  llie.cot- 
;  ton  plant  ?    When  is  the  cotton  gatliered  ?  3.  De« 


40 


[OOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


4.  Cottci  was  found  growing  naturally 
in  America ;  and  the  Southern  States  now 
supply  immense  quantities  of  the  article. 
The  plant  is  also  much  cultivated  in  the 
countries  of  the  Levant,  or  eastern  part 
of  the  Mediterranean ;  as  the  Morea,  Candia, 
Cyprus,  and  the  islands  of  Sicily,  Malta, 
&c. ;  also  in  the  country  about  Jerusalem 
and  Damascus.  It  is  also  raised  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  Brazil  and  other  parts 
of  South  America. 

5.  When  gathered  to  be  exported  the 
cotton  is  packed  in  a  curious  manner :  large 
bags  are  provided,  two  or  three  yards  in 
length,  and  above  a  yard  in  width.  The 
mouth  of  this  bag  is  held  open,  by  two 
cross  pieces  of  timber  to  which  it  is  fast- 
ened, and  supported  by  posts  strong  and 
high.  The  packer  gets  into  this  deep  bag, 
to  the  bottom  of  it ;  while  another  hands 
to  him  small  parcels  of  cotton  continually  ; 
these  he  places,  treads  down,  and  forces 
into  as  small  a  compass  as  possible.  The 
bag,  when  thus  crammed,  will  contain  three 
or  four  hundred  weight. 

6.  Cotton  being  a  very  light  commodity, 
one  grand  object  has  been  to  reduce  it  in 
bulk ;  that  a  ship  might  be  able  to  hold  a 
larger  quantity,  and  so  make  her  voyage 
more  profitable.  To  accomplish  this,  ma- 
chinery of  very  powerful  pressure  has  been 
invented,  by  which  the  cotton  is  reduced 
into  one-thirtieth  part  of  the  bulk  to  which 
common, packing  could  bring  it.  It  lies  so 
close  now  as  to  be  almost  solid ;  but  it  re- 
covers its  usual  springy  lightness  on  being 
unpacked  and  pulled  out. 

7.  The  whole  process  in  the  manufactur- 
ing of  cotton  has  been  so  improved  of  late 
years,  by  ingenious  machinery,  as  to  be  to- 
tally changed.  By  this  means,  it  can  be 
afforded  cheaper  at  the  market ;  a  much 
larger  quantity  is  thus  disposed  of;  and  the 


scribe  the  fruit.  4.  What  of  the  growth  of  the 
plant  ?  5.  How  is  the  cotton  packed  ?  6.  How  is 
It  reduced  in  bulk  ?  7.  What  is  said  of  the  use  of 


trade  has  become  a  great  source  of  emolu  • 
ment  while  it  affords  employment  to  many 
people.  The  English  are  able,  even  to 
fetch  the  cotton  from  India,  work  it  up  in- 
to muslins,  send  it  back  again  all  that  way, 
and  sell  it  in  Hindoostan  cheaper  than  the 
natives  can  produce  it  on  the  spot. 

8.  The  ladies  who  wear  those  fine  deli- 
cate India  muslins,  would  be  surprised  to 
see  in  what  an  inartificial  manner  they  are 
woven,  by  a  people  whose  loom  is  so  clum- 
sy as  scarcely  to  deserve  the  name  of  ma- 
chinery. The  Indian  weaver  works  in  the 
open  air ;  he  takes  his  apparatus  under  the 
shade  of  some  tree,  where  he  incessantly 
plies  his  adroit  fingers.  His  progress  is 
tediously  slow,  but  it  is  patiently  persever- 
ing. He  can  live  upon  a  little,  and  is  con- 
tent with  his  monotonous  employment ;  as 
was  his  father  before  him. 

9.  The  first  process  with  the  cotton, 
when  unpacked,  is  that*  of  carding,  in  order 
to  prepare  it  for  spinning.  This  consists  in 
tearing  it  asunder,  by  means  of  a  board  set 
with  steel  hooks,  in  which  the  flaky  cotton 
is  entangled,  and  from  which  it  is  foreed 
out  by  another  instrument  of  the  same  de- 
scription, which,  being  drawn  the  reverse 
way,  tears  open  the  compressed  substance 
of  the  cotton,  and  brings  it  into  the  state  of 
fine  wool. 

10.  This  carding  is  now  effected  by  very 
ingenious  machinery,  by  means  of  which  the 
work  is  expedited  in  an  astonishing  degree^ 
and  performed  too  with  much  greater  regu- 
larity and  evenness  than  could  be  accom- 
phshed  by  the  hand-cards.  It  consists  of 
cylinders  stuck  full  of  teeth,  working  con- 
trary to  each  other,  and  of  considerable 
size  and  rapidity  of  motion.  The  saw-gin^ 
invented  by  Mr.  Whitney,  an  American,  is 
an  ingenious  machine,  for  clearing  the  cot- 
ton from  the  seeds. 

machinery  ?  8.  Of  the  working  of  Indian  mua 
lins  ?  9.  What  is  the  process  of  carding  ?  10 
How  is  it  now  effected  ?   By  whom  was  the  saw 


ARTICLES    OF    CLOTHIiVG. 


41 


11.  The  spinning  of  cotton  was  once  a 
very  tedious  process  ;  one  tliread  at  a  time, 
by  a  pair  of  hands,  could  make  but  little 
progress.  This  spinning  is  also  now  per- 
formed by  machinery,  in  a  manner  most 
ingenious,  and,  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it, 
very  surprising.  That  the  pliant  fingers 
should  be  supersedec^  and  excelled  by  a 
pair  of  rollers  whirled  round  by  a  steam- 
engine,  a  body  of  water,  or  any  other  inani- 
mate power,  seems  to  be  an  astonishing 
effort  of  art.  Yet  such  is  the  case,  and  a 
thread  much  more  thin,  even,  and  strong, 
is  the  result.  The  credit  of  inventing  this 
wonderful  mode  of  operation  is  due  to  Mr., 
afterwards  Sir  Richard,  Arkwright. 

12.  The  cotton  manufactory  is  now  a 
very  large  concern.     It  is  carried  on  chief- 


HHba^^^E 

- 

y  m  extensive  buildings,  and  all  the  opera- 
tions of  carding,  roving,  spinning,  &c.  are 
carried  ort  under  one  roof.  Some  of  these 
manufactories  contain  several  thousand 
spindles,  driven  either  by  large  water- 
wheels,  (where  a  fall  of  water  can  be  had,) 
or  by  steam.  Some  of  them  will  spin  a 
thousand  yards  of  warp  yarn  in  a  minute. 
The  number  of  persons  they  employ,  often 
taking  three  thousand  dollars  a  week  to 
pay  the  operators. 

13.    The  immense  advantage  of  skill  in 
manufactures  appears  strikingly  in  cotton. 


gin  invented  ?  11.  How  is  the  spinning  now  per- 
tormed  ?    Who  invented  this  species  of  machine- 


One  pound  of  cotton  in  wool,  has,  by  spin- 
ning it  into  yarn,  been  raised  in  value  to 
five  guineas ;  and  afterwards,  when  woven 
into  muslin,  and  ornamented  with  tambour, 
has  become  worth  fifteen  pounds  :  yielding 
a  profit  of  almost  six  thousand  per  cent, 
on  the  raw  material. 

14.  The  greatest  manufactories  of  cot- 
ton in  the  United  States,  are  at  Lowell  and 
Waltham,  in  Massachusetts,  Dover  in  New 
Hampshire,  Pawtucket  and  Slatersville,  in 
Rhode  Island — but  there  is  hardly  a  town  in 
New  England,  possessing  the  requisite  ad- 
vantage of  water,  &c.,  which  does  not  re- 
sound with  the  noise  of  the  machinery  of 
a  cotton  or  woollen  manufactory. 

MUSLIN. 

15.  Muslins,  so  denominated  from  the 
downy  nap  upon  them,  which  the  French 
call  mousse^  are  the  finest  sort  of  cloths 
made  of  cotton,  and  are  the  lightest,  most 
transparent,  and  beautiful  for  female  dress  ; 
though  indeed  in  India,  sometimes  the  men 
dress  in  long  muslin  draperies,  which  reach, 
like  gowns  and  petticoats,  down  to  the  feet. 
There  are  .different  names  of  muslins ;  as 
book  muslin,  which  is  the  clearest  and  most 
transparent  sort ;  this  is  used  by  our  ladies 
for  a  ball  dress,  and  looks  very  beautiful 
when  worn  over  colored  silk. 

16.  Jaconots  are  a  thicker  sort  of  mus- 
lin, more  commonly  worn  as  a  female 
dress.  Neckcloths  are  also  made  of  it. 
The  turbans  of  the  Indian  princes  are 
made  of  a  great  length  of  muslin,  so  fine, 
and  so  long,  as  to  be  the  labor  of  twenty 
years  of  the  weaver's  life ;  and  the  crite- 
rion of  the  value  of  a  dress  among  the 
ladies  of  the  seraglio,  is,  its  capability  of 
being  drawn  through  a  ring.  We  have 
also  cambric  muslins,  which  are  closer 
woven  than  jaconots,  and  have  less  nap 
upon  them. 

ry  ?  12.  What  is  said  of  the  cotton  manufactory  ' 

13.  Of  the  advantage  of  skill  in  manufactures' 

c 


42 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE. 


CALICOES. 

17.  Calicoes  are  so  called  because  they 
were  originally  brought  from  Calicut,  in 
Southern  India.  They  are  a  thicker, 
closer  sort  of  cloth,  and  made  of  a  larger 
cotton  thread.  In  the  East  Indies  the 
calicoes  are  all  painted  by  the  hand,  which 
is  performed  with  great  expedition.  But 
in  Eurojie  and  in  this  country,  they  are 
printed.  There  are  two  ways  of  doing 
this  :  one  is  by  copper-plate,  just  as  prints 
are  engraved  and  printed  ;  that  is,  the  pat- 
tern is  cut  out  in  large  plates  of  copper,  by 
the  graving  tool ;  these  lines,  or  grooves, 
are  filled  in  with  a  proper  ink  ;  the  sur- 
face of  the  plate  is  then  cleaned,  so  as  to 
leave  ink  only  in  the  strokes ;  the  cloth  is 
then  placed  over  this  plate,  and  the  whole 
is  violently  pressed  with  a  roller,  which 
forces  the  cloth  so  close  to  the  plate,  and 
even  into  the  strokes,  that  all  the  ink  in 
them  comes  off  upon  the  cloth.  Engrav- 
ing of  prints  is  done  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple ;  only  paper,  softened  by  wetting,  is 
used  instead  of  cloth ;  and  the  whole  work 
is  much  finer,  and  more  delicatejy  done. 

18.  The  other  mode  of  printing  is  done 
by  wooden  blocks.  The  pattern  is  drawn 
very  correctly  upon  a  block  of  smooth  hard 
wood,  as  box  or  holly ;  then  all  the  parts 
between  the  actual  strokes  of  the  pattern 
are  cut  away,  in  deep  hollows.  If  now 
the  surface  of  the  block  be  daubed  with 
ink,  and  that  surface  be  forcibly  pressed 
down  on  the  cloth,  the  exact  print  of  the 
pattern  will  be  transferred  to  the  cloth ; 
as  flowers,  or  sprigs,  or  birds,  just  as  you 
see  them  on  the  curtains. 

19.  Yet  this  is  little  more  than  a  mere 
outline,  and  the  pattern  has  many  gay 
colors;  these  are  often  put  in  by  hand, 
with  a  camel-hair  })encil,  as  if  drawing  in 
water  colors ;  which  is  easy  when  the  out- 
line is  correctly  done. 


J 5.  What  of  muslins?     16.  Jaconots?   17.  Cali- 
eoes  ?   How  a.'-e  they  printed  ?   18.  19.  The  other 


COTTON  THREAD. 

20.  Cotton  thread  for  sewing  has  beeb 
brought  to  great  perfection,  so  as  almosi 
to  supersede  that  made  of  flax.  It  was 
formerly  sold  in  skeins,  but  great  quanti- 
ties are  now  disposed  of  already  wound 
upon  small  wooden  spools.  These  being 
wound  by  machinery  are  afforded  abou 
as  cheap  as  the  skeins,  and  save  much 
trouble. 

CHINTZ. 

21.  Chintz  is  a  fine  cotton  fabric;  the 
patterns,  as  of  all  Indian  goods,  are  pecu- 
liar and  showy,  though  not  elegant.  The 
English  have  succeeded  in  imitating  tht 
chintz  patterns ;  and  the  Swiss  are  ven 
expert  at  these  imitations. 

LINEN. 

22.  All  linens  are  made  either  of  hemp 
or  flax.  Flax  is  also  called  liii.  The  lin, 
or  flax-plant,  very  much  resembles  the 
nettle,  only  it  grows  taller ;  and  the  hemp- 
plant  is  still  larger  and  coarser.  The  stalks 
of  these  plants  are  laid  in  water,  to  soften 
them,  that  the  bark  may  be  easily  stripped 
off.  This  bark  is  then  separated  length- 
wise, into  its  distinct  fibres,  which  fibres, 
in  fact,  become  the  thread,  of  which  linen 
is  made. 

23.  The  chief  countries  in  which  linens 
I  are    manufactured    are  Russia,   Germany, 

Switzerland,  Holland,  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land. Immense  quantities  of  linen  are  ex^ 
ported  from  Ireland  to  England,  as  well 
as  to  North  and  South  America.  Russia 
expoi&ts  vast  quantities  of  a  coarse  but  dur- 
able Kind,  called  Russia  duck  and  Ra-vens 
duck,  and  Russia  diaper,  &c.  France  is 
eminent  for  the  delicacy  of  her  linens  ;  and 
Cambray  in  Wales  has  furnished  cambrics, 
as  fine  as  the  finest  sort  of  linen.  Hol- 
land exports  a  linen  of  that  name,  in  high 
esteem  for  its  beauty,  and  the  fineness  of 
its  fabric.     The  province  of  Zealand  in 


modes   of  printing  ? 
Chintz  ?    22.  Linen  .=> 


20.    Cotton  thread.?    21 
23.  The  chief  countries  ia' 


SILK,    VELVETS,    &C. 


43 


Denmark,  lying  low,  grows  flax  of  a  very 
fine  and  delicate  texture. 

24.  The  flax-seed  is,  for  the  most  part, 
procured  from  America  ;  but  other  nations 
engaged  in  this  lucrative  branch  of  trade, 
either  raise  their  seed  at  home  or  procure 
it  from  the  north  of  Europe. 

25.  Linen  must  have  been  in  use  in  very 
early  times  ;  for  when  Pharaoh  honored 
Joseph,  he  put  on  him  vestures  of  fine 
linen.  Egypt  was  famous  for  this  commo- 
dity ;  the  fine  linen  of  Egypt  was  sought 
after  by  princes.  Solomon  had  linen  yarn 
brought  out  of  Egypt,  by  his  merchants, 
at  a  high  price.  Yet  linen  was  not  com- 
monly worn  by  the  Jews  ;  it  belonged  only 
to  the  rich,  and  was  seldom  used  but  upon 
grand  occasions. 

26.  There  is  no  doubt  but  the  Greeks, 
by  their  intercourse  with  Egypt,  became 
acquainted  with  the  luxury  of  linen.  Yet 
we  do  not  find  any  mention  of  its  being  in 
use  among  them  in  the  early  ages. 

27.  Neither  was  it  common  among  the 
Romans,  till  late  in  their  history.  Alexan- 
der Severus,  history  assures  us,  was  the 
first  Roman  Emperor  who  wore  a  shirt; 
he  reigned  in  the  third  century.  And  it 
may  be  supposed  that  this  imperial  luxury 
was  a  long  while  in  descending  to  the 
common  people. 

28.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  however, 
tliat  it  is  to  the  Romans  the  English  owe 
the  introduction  of  linen  into  their  country ; 
both  as  an  article  of  raiment,  and  as  a 
manufacture;  they  taught  the  natives  to 
plant,  and  prepare  the  flax,  and  showed 
them  how  to  spin  it  into  thread,  and  weave 
it  into  cloth. 

29.  The  manufacture  of  linen  in  Eng- 
land is  not  on  a  large  scale  ;  although  the 
Suffolk  hemp  is  in  esteem   for  sheeting. 


which  linens  are  manufactured  ?  24.  Whence  is 
the  flax-seed  procured  ?  25.  What  is  said  of  th^ 
early  use  of  Hnen .?  26.  Were  the  Greeks  ac- 
quainted with  it  ?     27.  The   Romans  ?    28.  To 


and  indeed  for  shirting  ;  as  it  is  said  to 
outlast  every  other  material,  when  once 
made  up.  To  the  English,  the  woollen 
manufacture  is  of  far  greater  consequence. 

30.  Linen  rags  are  yet  extensively  used 
for  the  manufacturing  of  paper.  Cotton 
has,  of  late  years,  taken  the  place  of  linen 
for  many  purposes,  on  account  of  its  greater 
cheapness. 

31.  Buckram  is  a  sort  of  coarse  cloth, 
made  of  hemp,  gummed  and  dyed  several 
colors.  It  is  put  into  those  places  of  the 
lining  of  a  garment  which  are  to  be  stiff, 
and  intended  to  keep  their  forms. 

CHAP.  XIL 

SILK,  VELVETS,  &c. 

SILK. 
1.  For  many  years  after  silk  was  brought 
into  Europe,  those  who  brought  it  did  not 
know  what  it  was,  nor  how  it  was  obtain- 
ed, nor  where  was  the  original  country 
whence  it  came.  Its  beauty,  when  made 
up  into  garments,  induced  in  every  one  who 
was  able  to  pay  the  price  a  desire  to  obtain 
it.  For,  coming  from  a  great  distance, 
and  through  the  hands  of  numerous  mer- 
chants, the  price  was  exorbitalit ;  twelve 
ounces  of  gold  being  demanded  for  a  sin- 
gle pound  of  this  scarce  commodity.  The 
Greeks  had  known  silk  from  the  time  of 
Alexander's  conquest  of  Persia.  The  Per 
sians  had  supplied  the  Roman  Empire,  till 
the  time  of  Justinian,  in  555.  This  em 
peror,  becoming  indignant  at  the  rapacity 
of  the  silk  merchants,  contrived,  afler  m-any 
unsuccessful  attempts,  to  obtain  some  of 
the  silk- worm's  eggs,  by  means  of  a  couple 
of  pilgrim  monks,  who  concealed  them  in 
the  hollow  of  their  staffs.  They  brorught 
over  also  such  instructions  concerning  the 


whom  do  the  English  owe  the  introduction  or 
the   manufacture.?      29.  Is   it  on  a  large  scale 
among  them  at  present  ?  30.  Is  linen  used  in  the 
making  of  paper .'  31.  What  is  buckram  ? 
c2 


44 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


mode  of  feeding  the  worms,  and  manufac- 
tUFing  the  produce,  as  enabled  the  Greek 
empire  to  supply  itself.  The  rearing  of 
silk-worms  soon  spread  through  all  the 
countries  of  the  Levant :  Greece,  Sicily, 
and  several  towns  in  Italy,  also  obtain- 
ed these  valuable  insects,  and  shared  in 
the  lucrative  traffic  deduced  from  their 
labors. 

2.  The  first  thing  we  see  in  the  process 
of  obtaining  silk,  is  a  multitude  of  small 
eggs,  which  are  laid  by  a  whitish-gray 
moth,  extremely  frail,  whose  only  existence 
is  for  this  one  service  of  laying  eggs.  Per- 
sons who  cultivate  silk,  place  these  moths 
upon  sheets  of  paper,  with  the  edges  just 
doubled  up,  as  a  wall  to  keep  them  in. 
There  they  deposit  their  eggs,  which  ad- 
here, by  a  glutinous  matter,  to  the  paper. 
The  eggs  are  now  about  the  size  of  a  com- 
mon pin's  head,  and  of  a  yellowish  color. 
The  moth  lays  a  considerable  number  of 
them,  (between  two  and  three  hundred,) 
and  then  dies,  without,  in  this  state,  ever 
tasting  food. 

3.  Let  us  return  to  the  eggs,  which  are 
adhering  in  clusters  to  the  sheets  of  white 
paper.  These  sheets  are  hung  up,  with  the 
eggs  inward,  to  a  beam,  in  an  airy  room ; 
never  to  a  hempen  line,  as  that  is  injurious 
to  them.  In  a  few  days,  they  will  be  suf- 
ficiently dry  to  admit  of  the  sheets  being 
rolled  up,  with  the  eggs  inward ;  in  which 
state  they  may  be  hung  up  for  the  remain- 
der of  the  year ;  or  rather  they  are  put 
into  stone  or  glass  bottles  to  prevent  acci- 
dent. They  are  kept  in  the  early  part  of 
the  spring  considerably  cool,  because  they 
must  not  hatch  till  the  mulberry  leaves  are 
sufficiently  forward  to  feed  them.  A  little 
warmth. is  allowed  them  as  soon  as  these 
leaves  begin  to  bud.  Presently  will  the 
eggs  swell,  and  become  pointed.    Now  the 


1.   "What  is  said  of  the  early  history  of  silk  ? 
What  is  the  fi]       ■  ■ 
of  obtaining  silk  ? 


2    What  is  the  first  thing  we  see  in  the  process 
"    " 3.   What  is  done   with  the 


rolls  of  paper  are  spread  out,  and  hung 
with  their  backs  toward  the  sun,  to  gain 
warmth.  The  eggs  first  change  to  a  gray 
color,  and  in  a  few  days  become  blackish. 
These  must  now  be  kept  in  a  pretty  warm 
place  ;  and  the  next  day,  the  rolled  u} 
papers  will  be  found  full  of  small  blacl 
worms,  the  size  of  ants. 

4.  Their  apartment  must  be  airy,  yeJ 
kept  considerably  warm.  Broad  frame? 
placed  like  shelves,  one  above  another,  art 
provided  for  them  ;  on  which  they  are  kept 
and  fed,  till  they  begin  to  spin  ;  the  rooit 
being  kept  all  the  while  in  a  regular  and 
comfortable  degree  of  warmth. 

5.  The  silk  worm  is  a  sort  of  caterpillar, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  of  a 
milky  or  pearly  color.  It  feeds  voracious- 
ly upon  the  mulberry  leaf,  so  that  it  cannot 
be  reared  in  any  country  where  the  cli- 
mate is  not  warm  enough  for  the  mulberry 
tree  to  grow  certainly  and  luxuriantly 
It  will,  indeed,  eat  the  leaves  of  lettuce , 
but  it  does  not  thrive  unless  it  has  its  own 
proper  food.  It  eats  night  and  day.  The 
more  it  feeds,  the  faster  it  grows ;  and  the 
faster  it  grows,  the  more  silk  it  produces ; 
so  that  its  voracity  is  a  good  sign  for  those 
who  rear  them  for  profit.  The  Chinese 
feed  them  with  fresh  leaves  every  half 
hour,  both  day  and  night.  If  they  feed 
fast,  so  as  to  come  to  maturity  in  twenty- 
four  days,  a  sheet  full  of  worms  will  pro- 
duce twenty-five  ounces  of  silk ;  should 
they  be  thirty  or  forty  days  in  growing, 
they  will  not  make  above  ten  ounces. 

6.  When  they  begin  to  spin,  they  must 
have  more  room  allowed  them.  They  are 
covered  with  mats,  to  defend  them  from 
blasts  of  air,  and  to  enable  them  to  work 
in  the  dark,  when  they  are  most  active,  as 
being  most  at  ease.  The  thread  they  spin 
around  themselves  is  formed  of  a  juice  from 


eggs  ?  4.  Must  their  apartment  be  airy  ?  5.  De- 
scribe the  silk  worm,  G.  What  must  be  done, 
when  it  begins  to  spin  ?   7.  When  have  they  fin- 


SILK.    VELVETS,    &C. 


45 


their  own  bowels ;  something  like  the  web 
of  a  spider. 

7.  In  about  a  week  they  have  finished 
their  spinning,  each  having  enclosed  itself 
in  a  case,  wliich,  though  formed  of  single 
threads,  looks  like  tissue  paper;  it  is  of  an 
egg  shape,  and  is  called  a  cocoon.  When 
the  silk- worm  has  done  its  part  thus,  it 
changes  into  a  chrysalis,  or  aurelia ;  like  the 
changed  remains  of  our  own  caterpillars, 
which  we  often  find  adhering  to  the  walls 
of  houses  in  the  country.  It  seems  dead, 
and  has  no  motion,  unless  you  press  it. 
In  a  few  days,  it  will  hatch  from  this 
state,  gnaw  its  way  through  the  cocoon, 
and  come  out  a  complete  moth.  In  that 
state  it  will  do  nothing,  nay  it  has  nothing 
to  do,  but  lay  its  eggs,  for  another  genera- 
tion of  silk-worms. 

8.  The  substance  which  forms  the  silky 
thread  is  in  its  stomach,  in  two  compart- 
ments ;  and  when  it  spins,  it  sends  out  a 
thread  from  each  of  these  ;  which  it  joins 
together  by  a  gummy  matter,  by  the  help 
of  two  hooks  in  its  mouth. 

9.  I  have  said  that  the  moth  will  make 
its  way  out  of  the  cocoon  in  a  few  days 
after  it  ceases  to  spin.  If  this  be  suffered, 
the  silk  will  be  spoiled ;  for  the  hole  made 
by  the  insect  would  divide  the  string  of 
silk  into  so  many  short  pieces,  and  render 
it  unfit  for  general  use.  Some  of  them, 
the  largest  and  best,  may  be  suffered  to  do 
so,  in  order  to  have  a  supply  of  eggs  for 
breeding  in  the  next  season. 

10.  Those  cocoons,  of  which  the  silk  is 
to  be  used,  must  be  put  into  a  tolerably 
hot  oven,  in  baskets,  in  order  to  kill  the 
moth  inside.  This  will  take  an  hour's 
baking  to  make  sure  of  it.  You  will  find 
a  coarse  kind  of  web  about  the  outside  of 
the  cocoon,  which  must  be  carefully  sepa- 
rated, as  it  is  of  little  use. 


ished  their  spinning  ?  When  the  silk- worm  has 
done  its  part  ?  8.  Where  is  the  substance  that 
forms  the  silky  thread  ?  9.  Must  the  moth  be  per- 
mitted to  make  its  way  out  of  the  cocoon  ?  10, 11. 
4 


11.  The  cocoons  are  then  thrown  into 
water,  at  hot  as  the  hand  is  able  to  bear, 
and  whisked  about ;  which  will  loosen  the 
ends  of  the  thread.  Then,  eight  of  these 
ends  are  twisted  several  times  pretty  firm- 
ly together,  to  unite  them  into  one ;  and 
this  thread  is  drawn  through  a  hole  in  a 
plate  of  iron,  and  is  fastened  to  the  reel, 
which,  in  turning,  draws  forth  the  sub- 
stance of  the  eight  •cocoons.  Care  must 
be  taken  if  any  one  of  them  break,  to 
join  it  again  ;  or  to  supply  its  place  with 
another,  if  expended.  More  than  eight 
cocoons  are  sometimes  wound  together 
into  one  thread  ;  eight  suffice  for  ribbons ; 
velvets  require  fourteen  ;  it  is  difficult  to 
unite  more  than  thirty.  The  length  of  the 
thread  varies  much  in  different  cocoons  ; 
some  of  them  will  measure  twelve  hundred 
ells  in  length,  but  in  common  they  have 
not  more  than  five  or  six  hundred. 

12.  The  refuse  and  coarser  parts  of 
these  cocoons  are  carded  and  spun,  and 
become  useful  for  many  purposes ;  it  is 
called  j^05  silk,  and  is  made  into  stockings, 
or  used  for  covering  hats. 

13.  We  have  now  obtained  a  thread,  but 
two  of  these  at  least  are  usually  twisted 
together,  to  make  a  thread  fit  for  weaving. 
This  is  thrown  silk,  or  organzine,  which 
forms  the  ivai-p,  or  lengthwise  thread  of 
the  broad  silk.  That  which  crosses  it  is 
called  the  tram,  or  ivoof,  and  is  more  loose- 
ly twisted. 

14.  The  great  trade  in  silk  consists 
of  raw  silk,  just  as  it  is  reeled  from  the 
cocoons.  Much  comes  from  Persia  and 
Asia  Minor  ;  the  centre  of  which  trade  is 
Smyrna.  Much  comes  from  Sicily,  and 
the  provinces  of  Italy,  to  Lyons,  which  is 
the  grand  mart  for  silk,  and  the  grand 
manufactory  for  silk  stuffs,  although  it  is 
little  now  to  what  it  was  once.     Yet  bro- 


What  must  be  done  with  the  cocoons  ?  1 2.  What 
becomes  of  the  coarser  parts?  13.  What  is  meant 
by  thrown  silk  ?  ]4.  Of  what  does  the  great  trade 
in  silk  consist  ?    15.  What  of  silk  in  this  country  ? 


46 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


cades,  and  silk  goods  of  exquisite  manu- 
facture, still  issue  from  their  looms.  Also 
much  raw  silk  comes  to  us  from  China. 

15.  The  manufacture  of  silk  has  become 
an  object  of  considerable  attention  in  this 
country  ;  and  the  tijiio  will  doubtless  arrive 
when  we  shall  be  able  to  obtain  excellent 
silk  without  sending  for  it  to  Euro})e  and 
to  Asia. 

16.  The  term  hro«a(le  relates  to  any  sort 
of  silk  goods  richly  ornamented  with  flow- 
ers, wove  in.  Anciently,  these  ornaments 
were  made  with  gold  and  silver  threads. 
Brocaded  silks  were  much  in  fashion  in 
former  days ;  now  lighter  fabrics  are  pre- 
ferred. That  sort  most  commonly  seen  is 
called  lusb'ing.  This  is  woven  over  and 
under,  like  a  piece  of  calico :  the  warp, 
and  the  woof  or  tram,  appearing  equally 
on  the  face  of  it,  glistening  as  it  catches  the 
light.  It  has  its  name  from  its  lustre  or 
brilliancy.  It  is  usually  the  stoutest  of 
broad  silks.  Satins,  on  the  contrary  have 
the  woof  passing  over  several  threads  of 
the  warp  at  a  time,  presenting  a  very  soft 
ami  glossy  surface. 

17.  Velvets  have  the  woof  thrown  over 
a  small  wire.  If  the  wire  were  drawn, 
it  would  show  a  rich  arrangement  of  loops  ; 
but  before  it  is  removed,  these  loops  are 
cut,  which  gives  it  the  appearance  of  a 
rich  shaggy  texture,  intensely  deep  in  its 
color,  and  having  a  smooth  and  fine  appear- 
ance. Florence,  Genoa,  and  some  other 
cities  of  Italy  are  most  noted  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  velvets.  At  present  the  French 
velvets  made  at  Lyons  are  much  esteemed. 

18.  Ribbons  are  usually  woven  as  narrow 
(ustrings,  but  sometimes  satin  is  inter- 
mingled, in  stripes  or  flowers.  These  are 
called  figured  ribbons.  The  principal  man- 
ufactory for  these  in  England,  is  at  Coven- 
try and  in  France  at  Lyons. 

19.  Sarcenet  is  a  thinner,  slighter  sort 


16  What  is  brocade?  Lustring?  Satin?  17.  Vel- 
7et?    18.  What  of  ribbons?    19.  Sarcenet?  20. 


of  lustring  woven   in   a  similar  manner 
though  sometimes  it  is  twilled. 

20.  Modes  are  something  like  sarcenets, 
but  have  the  warp  and  woof  of  difleren# 
thicknesses.  Persian  is  still  thinner,  and 
more  flimsy. 

21.  Tiffany  is  a  very  thin  silk,  having 
some  stiftiiess  given  it.  It  was  formerly 
used  for  trimmings,  but  it  is  now  out  of 
fashion. 

22.  Gauze  is  a  silken  fabric,  quite  trans- 
parent, held  together  by  artificial  stiflTening. 
Paisley,  in  Scotland,  is  famous  for  this 
delicate  material,  which  is  used  chiefly  as 
a  trimming  to  ornament  stouter  fabrics. 

23.  Bombazine  is  a  fabric  formed  part- 
ly of  silk  and  partly  of  worsted.  This 
is  woven  at  Norwich,  in  England.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  there  has  always 
been  a  difiiculty  in  dyeing  bombazine,  as 
those  coloring  materials  which  fasten  upon 
wool,  will  not  lay  hold  permanently  of 
silk.  One  man  alone,  a  dyer  in  London, 
had  the  secret,  by  which  he  could  make 
the  dye  strike  on  both  at  one  operation. 
Of  course,  he  got  the  whole  trade  in  his 
hands,  and  made  a  fortune  by  it. 

24.  Crape  is  also  made  of  raw  silk ;  it 
is  woven  without  crossing,  and  is  highly 
stiflfened  with  wax  and  gum.  Having  a 
peculiarly  dull  appearance,  it  is  appropri- 
ated to  mourning. 

LACE. 

25.  Lace  is  a  texture  composed  of 
many  threads  of  gold,  silver,  silk,  or  thread, 
which  are  interwoven  and  worked  on  a 
cushion  from  bobbins,  according  to  the 
patterns  designed.  Thread  lace  is  of  va- 
rious kinds,  denominated  either  from  the 
place  where  it  is  manufactured,  or  from 
the  particular  method  of  working.  That 
which  is  woven  with  bobbins,  made  of 
bone  or  ivory,  is  called  bone-lace. 

26.  Bone-lace  is  said  to  have  been  the 


Modes?    Persians?    21.  Tiffany?    22.   Gauze.-' 
23.  Bombazine  ?  24.  Crape?  25.  Lace?  26.  Bon© 


CARPETS,    BOSIERT,    &.C. 


At 


invention  of  a  poor  woman  in  Germany, 
about  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Her 
husband  was  a  miner,  and  his  business 
becoming  slack,  she  endeavored  to  supply 


^mily  expenses  by  her  own  labor.  Her 
Ingenuity  succeeded;  lace  became  a  very 
fashionable  article  of  female  adornment, 
and  has  continued  so  to  the  present 
day. 

27.  This  has  been  a  great  manufacture, 
employing  thousands  of  poor  women  and 
Uprls.  Of  late,  this  has  been  almost  sup- 
planted, by  the  superior  neatness  and 
cheapness  of  bobbinet,  which  is  a  sort  of 
lace  formed  by  the  loom.  There  is  a 
*ace  manufactory  at  Ipswich,  Massachu- 
setts, and  another  at  Newport,  Rhode  Isl- 
and. 

28.  As  a  matter  of  commerce,  lace 
comes  to  us  in  great  quantities  from 
abroad.  Mechlin,  Brussels,  Valenciennes, 
fcc,  in  the  Netherlands,  still  retain  the  ex- 
cellence of  their  manufacture,  and  their 
reputation  for  it.  The  commodity  is  ex- 
quisite for  its  richness  and  fineness ;  and 
of  course,  it  bears  a  high  price.  Fi*ench 
lace  is  also  of  a  superior  tjuality.  Much 
of  that  fine  sort  called  point  lace^  was 
formerly  worked  in  the  convents,  most 
laboriously,  stich  by  stich,  with  the  nee- 
dle. 

lace?  27  Bobbinet?  28.  Whence  is  lace  brought 
tons?  ^ 

1.  What  are  carpets?    2.  3.  Where  are  they 


CHAP.  XIII. 

CARPETS,  HOSIERY,  &c. 

CARPETS. 
1.  Carpets  are  thick  textures  made 
wholly  or  partly  of  wool,  and  wrought  in 
a  variety  of  ways.  Persian  and  Turkey  car- 
pets are  most  esteemed :  though  at  Paris 
there  is  a  manufactory  where  they  make 
carpets  little  inferior  -to  the  true  Persian. 

2.  Fine  carpets  are  made  at  Axminster, 
Kidderminster  and  Wilton  in  England, 
and  also  at  several  towns  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  Excellent  carpeting  is  exported 
from  Brussels  in  Germany. 

3.  There  are  several  carpet  manufacto- 
ries in  New  England,  which  make  hand- 
some goods.  The  English  and  Americans 
are  the  only  people  among  whom  carpets 
are  articles  of  general  use. 

4.  The  carpet-weaver  has  his  loom  plac- 
ed upright  before  him;  not  horizontally, 
as  in  most  other  cases.  The  warp  (which 
means  that  parcel  of  threads  which  goes 
lengthwise)  is  wound  round  a  roller  at  top, 
and  another  at  bottom  ;  by  rolling  which 
he  can  remove  out  of  his  way  what  has 
been  done,  and  bring  that  part  of  the  warp 
on  which  he  is  working  exactly  level  with 
himself,  that  he  may  shoot  the  wefl  across 
it. 

5.  He  has  a  pattern  before  him,  exactly 
colored,  and  so  divided  by  squares,  an- 
swering to  every  ten  threads,  that  he  can 
see  what  color  and  how  many  threads  of 
each  he  is  to  place  on  the  spot  on  which 
he  is  working.  He  has  spindles  of  colored 
yarns,  of  every  shade  he  can  need  ;  these 
he  lays  conveniently  for  reaching,  and 
takes  up  that  which  he  wants,  passing  it 
under  and  over  so  many  threads  as  his 
pattern  indicates. 

6.  Ruggs,  such  as  lie  on   our  hearths. 


made  ?  4.  How  wove?  5.  Colored?  6.  What  of 
ruggs?  7.  When  were  beaver  hats  introduced 
into  England?    8    What  are  the  materials  for 


48 


BOOK    OF     COMMERCE. 


are  a  sort  of  small  carpet,  woven  with  the 
shag  very  long.  They  are  of  course 
warm  to  the  feet,  and  comfortable  in  win- 
ter time. 

HATS. 

7.  Beaver  hats  are  said  to  have  been  in- 
troduced into  England  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The  manufacture  of 
hats  has  of  late  years  become  a  great  ob- 
ject of  national  commerce ;  and  the  im- 
provements made  therein  are  considera- 
ble. 

8.  The  materials  for  making  hats  are, 
rabbits'  fur  cut  off  from  the  skin,  together 
with  wool  and  beaver ;  to  which  may  be 
added  mole  fur,  and  kid  hair.  These  are 
mixed  in  various  proportions,  and  of  differ- 
ent qualities,  according  to  the  value  of  the 
hats,  intended  to  be  made.  The  best  sorts 
are  made  chiefly  of  beaver. 

9.  A  hat  is  neither  wove  nor  spun,  but 
consists  of  wool  and  hair  entangled  to- 
gether into  a  sort  of  clothy  substance  call- 
ed felt.  The  wool  is  cut  into  short  lengths 
and  mixed  with  the  hair,  by  beating  it  with 
a  bow.  The  materials  are  spread  out,  and 
thinned  regularly,  so  as  to  adhere  together 
enough  to  be  handled  ;  this  is  called  a  batt ; 
two  or  more  batts  are  placed  together,  and 
hardened,  by  being  pressed  close,  and 
made  to  unite ;  the  hairs  and  wool  becom- 
ing closely  twisted  together. 

10.  The  whole  is  much  pressed  about 
with  the  hand  for  a  considerable  time,  and 
occasionally  sprinkled  with  water ;  this 
operation  is  called  basoning.  It  is  then  to 
be  worked  in  hot  water,  having  mixed 
with  it  a  little  sulphuric  acid ;  in  this  the 
felt  is  wetted,  then  worked  on  planks  ;  this 
is  called  soaking ;  some  beaver  hair  is  ad- 
ded in  this  latter  operation,  which  being 
very  soft  and  glossy,  forms  an  outside  to 
the  felt.  The  hat  is  now  something  in 
shape  like  a  funnel ;  but  it  is  placed  on  a 
wooden  block,  to  which  it  is  pressed  and 


making    hats?      9.  10.    How   is   a   hat   made? 


coaxed,  till    it  is  brought  mto  the  propel 
shape. 

11.  It  is  now  to  be  dyed,  which  is 
done  by  boiling  it  in  logwood,  and  then 
dipping  it  in  a  solution  of  copperas  ano 
vitriol.  In  the  stiffening  shop  it  is  render 
ed  more  firm,  by  beer  grounds  and  weak 
glue ;  when  dry,  it  is  brought  into  shape 
and  gloss,  by  being  moistened,  brushed^ 
and  smoothed  with  a  hot  iron. 

12.  Hats  of  chip,  straw  or  cane  are 
made  by  platting  and  sewing  the  plats  to- 
gether; beginning  with  the  centre  of  the 
crown,  and  working  round  till  the  whole 
is  finished.  Hats  for  the  same  purpose 
are  also  woven,  and  made  of  horse-hair 
silk,  &c. 

BONNETS. 

13.  The  bonnets  brought  from  Leghoia 
in  Italy,  are  esteemed  the  finest  and  most 
valuable.  Bonnets,  however,  are  made 
of  an  excellent  quality  in  New  England , 
and  at  Dunstable  there  is  quite  a  mauufac 
tory  of  them.  The  finest  straws  are  used 
in  the  formation  of  them. 

GLOVES. 

14.  Gloves,  with  respect  to  commerce, 
are  distinguished  into  wasli  or  tan  leather, 
silk,  thread,  cotton,  worsted,  &c.  Leathern 
gloves  are  made  of  chamois,  kid,  lamb, 
doe,  elk,  buff,  &c.  The  leather  of  gloves 
is  not  tanned,  properly  speaking,  but  cured 
with  alum,  which  renders  it  soft  and  plia- 
ble, and  therefore  more  proper  for  gloves, 
&c.  The  Limerick  gloves  are  manufac- 
tured in  a  city  in  Ireland  from  which  they 
derive  their  name,  and  are  remarkably 
fine.  Mittens  made  of  deer-skin,  are 
manufactured  in  considerable  quantities  in 
Vermont,  New  Hampshire  and  other  parts 
of  our  country. 

15.  The  gauntlet  or  glove  worn  of  old 
by  knights  in  armour,  was  made  of  jointed 
steel  plates.  The  throwing  down  of  the 
gauntlet  was  the  way  of  communicating  a 


11.    How  died.'    12.  How  are  straw  hats  made.' 


FDRS,  &C. 


49 


challenge ;  and  if  it  was  taken  up  by  any 
one.  it  was  a  token  that  the  combatants 
were  to  fight  till  one  was  slain,  or  at  least 
desperately  wounded. 

TAPESTRY. 

16.  Tapestry  is  a  kind  of  woven  hang- 
-ings,  of  wool,  and  silk,  frequently  raised 
and  enriched  with  gold  and  silver,  repre- 
•enting  figures  of  men,  beasts,  landscapes, 
histories,  &c.  The  art  of  tapestry  was  in- 
troduced into  England  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.;  and  is  said  to  have  been 
learned  from  the  Saracens.  At  first  the 
figures  and  groupes  which  rendered  this 
manufacture  popular,  were  copies  of  favor- 
ite paintings,  but,  as  taste  improved,  and 
skill  increased,  they  showed  more  of  origin- 
ality in  their  conceptions  if  not  more  of 
nature  in  their  forms.  They  exhibited,  in 
common  with  all  other  works  of  art,  the 
mixed  taste  of  the  times ;  a  grotesque 
union  of  classical  and  Hebrew  history; 
f)f  martial  life  and  pastoral  repose ;  of 
Greek  gods  and  distinguished  saints.  The 
art  of  tapestry  is  now  considerably  neg- 
lected. 

17.  There  is  a  famous  manufactory, 
railed  Goh  lins,  near  Paris,  for  making  ta- 
pestry and  other  furniture.  It  was  institu- 
ted by  the  brothers  named  Gob-  lins,  who 
were  celebrated  dyers  in  the  15th  century. 
They  first  introduced  into  Paris  that  beau- 
tiful scarlet  color,  which  has  since  borne 
their  name.  The  process  of  manufactur- 
ing tapestry  is  extremely  slow  and  tedious ; 
and  it  is  of  a  price  to  be  purchased  almost 
exclusively  by  princes. 

CHAP.  XIV. 

FURS,  &c. 

1.  By  a  fur,  we  mean  the  skin  of  some 
animal,  dressed  with    the  hair  on ;   when 


I  the  hair  is  taken  off,  it  becomes  leaiher. 
One  mark  of  the  kind  attention  of  Provi- 
dence to  our  wants,  is  the  extraordinary 
fulness,  softness,  and  warmth  of  the  hairs 
of  those  animals  which  live  in  the  cold 
Northern  regions.  Man  soon  found  out, 
when  he  had  killed  a  bear,  that  his  skin 
might  be  made  comfortable  to  himself. 
He  killed  him  at  first  in  his  own  defence, 
when  he  came  to  annoy  him ;  he  now 
seeks  him  for  his  personal  convenience ; 
finding  that,  by  borrowing  his  warm  fur, 
he  can  defend  himself  from  the  cold,  and 
provide  his  family  with  a  warm  and  soft 
bed  to  sleep  on. 

2.  It  was  the  usefulness  of  furs  which 
brought  them  at  first  into  request.  After- 
wards, they  were  thought  to  be  proofs  of 
valor ;  and  every  young  man  wanted  them 
to  evince  his  prowess.  They  were  then  es- 
teemed as  articles  of  ornament.  Smaller 
animals  were  sought  after ;  especially  such 
as  were  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  beautiful. 

3.  In  the  middle  regions  of  the  globe, 
the  climate  is  too  warm  to  need  furs,  or 
indeed  to  bear  them,  except  as  articles  of 
finery  and  ostentation.  The  Greeks  and 
old  Romans  do  not  seem  to  have  worn 
them.  But  when  the  Northern  nations, 
termed  Goths,  overran  the  plains  of  Italy, 
they  brought  with  them  handsome  furs, 
and  introduced  the  fashion  of  wearing 
them.  They  were,  however,  for  a  long 
while  very  scarce,  and,  of  course,  very 
costly. 

4.  For  ages,  the  northern  provinces  of 
Asia  alone  supplied  these  articles  of  luxu- 
ry to  Europe ;  and  still  we  draw  many 
furry  treasures  from  thence.  But  North 
America  now  furnishes  the  chief  supplies  ; 
and  great  quantities  are  sent  from  the  new 
world  to  Turkey,  and  even  to  China. 

5.  The   most    valuable    skins   brought 


13.   What  of  bonnets ?     14.    Gloves?    15.   The 
throwing  down  of  a  gauntlet,  in  ancient  times? 
IG.  Tapestry?     17.  Gobelins? 
5 


1.  What  of  furs?  ^.  What  first  brought  them 
into  request  ?  3.  In  the  middle  regions  of  the 
globe — ?  4.  What  a^  antry  now  furnishes  the  chief 


50 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE 


from  Siberia,  are  sables,  ermines,  and  black 
foxes.  The  sables  are  dark,  even  to  black- 
ness, and  so  scarce,  that  a  single  skin,  not 
broader  than  one's  hand,  will  be  valued  at 
twelve  or  fifteen  guineas.  Criminals  con- 
demned to  these  dreary  regions,  and  sol- 
diers, are  employed  to  catch  these  animals 


in  traps,  or  to  shoot  them ;  but  in  such  a 
way  as  not  to  spoil  the  skin.  These  hunt- 
ers most  commonly  endure  great  hardships 
in  this  uncertain  enterprise.  The  woods 
they  traverse  are  very  large,  and  they  iiave 
no  guide  to  direct  them  out  again,  except 
the  mark  which  they  themselves  make  in 
the  principal  trees.  Should  they  mistake 
these,  they  must  perish. 

6.  Frequently  they  have  to  wait  two  or 
three  days  at  the  hole  of  a  sable,  where 
they  have  set  a  trap,  watching  in  the  snow 
till  the  creature  chooses  to  come  out.  Of- 
ten their  provisions  fail  during  their  long 
excursions ;  and  to  prevent,  or  mitigate, 
the  pains  of  hunger,  they  fasten  thm  boards 
tight  round  the  stomach. 

7.  Black  foxes  are  highly  esteemed ;  a 
smgle  skin  will  fetch  a  hundred  guineas. 

8.  Ermines,  which  are  delicately  white, 
are  found  in  all  the  colder  parts  of  the 
North,  and  their  skins  become  an  impor- 
tant article  of  commerce  with  Norway, 
Lapland,    Russia,    &c.,     where   they    are 


Bupply  of  furs  ?  5.  Whence  are  the  most  valuable 
skins  brought  ^  6.  How  are  the  sables  taken  ? 
7.  What  of  black  foxes  >    8.  Ermines  ?    9.  What 


found  in  prodigious  numbers.  They  arc 
taken  in  traps,  baited  with  flesh,  and  made 
of  two  flat  stones,  the  uppermost  of  which, 
in  falling,  crushes  them  ;  or  they  are  shot 
with  blunt  arrows.  This  animal,  in  warm- 
er climates  is  called  a  stoat,  but  its  fur  is* 
coarse  there,  and  of  no  value. 

9.  In  North  America,  there  are  two 
principal  stations  for  the  fur  trade  ;  one 
on  the  eastern  side  is  connected  with  Hud- 
son's Bay,  or  with  Canada;  and  the  other 
is  on  the  north-west  coast  in  the  Pacific 
ocean. 

10.  The  first  of  these  was  begun  by 
Mr.  Henry  Hudson,  who,  in  endeavoring 
to  find  a  north-w^est  passage  to  India,  dis- 
covered that  large  inlet  in  North  America, 
which,  after  him,  bears  the  name  of  Hud- 
son's Bay.  Here  he  traded  with  the  na- 
tives chiefly  for  skins.  The  trade  became 
lucrative,  and  a  company  was  formed  for 
supporting  that  commerce ;  forts  were 
built,  and  settlements  made.  At  regular 
seasons,  the  Indians  bring  their  stock  of 
skins,  when  a  sort  of  market  is  established 
for  exchanging  them  for  British  commod- 
ities and  manufactures.  The  profits  from 
this  trade  are  considerable. 

11.  Another  distinct  fur  trade  is  carried 
on  through  Canada,  and  concentrates  at 
Montreal  and  Quebec. 

12.  The  most  valuable  skins  soon  be- 
came scarce,  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  several  settlements.  The  In- 
dians, therefore,  were  excited  to  penetrate 
the  most  remote  woods,  in  order  to  pro 
cure  them ;  and  nations  the  most  distant 
were  induced  to  bring  them  for  sale,  that 
they  might  obtain  European  goods,  espe- 
cially intoxicating  spirits.  Some  of  the 
early  Canadian  settlers  adopted  the  hunt- 
er's life,  or  became  trading  pedlars  among 
the  natives ;  and  embarking  in  canoes  on 


are  the  two  chief  stations  of  the  fur  trade  in  North 
America  ?  10.  By  whom  was  the  first  of  these 
begun?    11.  What  of  the  other  trade?    12.  Did 


FURS,  &C. 


51 


the  large  rivers,  carried   their   goods   to 
great  distances,  so  as  to  be  a  year  or  more 


before  they  returned,  with  the  rich  furs 
they  obtained. 

13.  This  trade  was  begun  by  the  French, 
who  were  the  first  settlers  in  Canada.  After 
the  country  was  ceded  to  the  English,  it 
was  long  before  it  could  be  revived  ;  as  the 
new  parties  were  ignorant  of  its  course, 
and  strange  in  manners  and  language. 

14.  Michilimakinac,  situated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  lakes  Michigan  and  Huron,  was 
long  the  boundary  of  a  considerable  trade  ; 
it  then  became  the  centre  of  one  much  more 
considerable.  But  population  has  spread 
so  much  of  late  years,  both  from  the  Bri- 
tish settlements  and  the  United  States,  that 
the  boundaries  of  their  conunerce  are  ex- 
tending every  year. 

15.  A  considerable  part  of  the  fur  trade 
of  the  western  states  concentrates  at  St. 
Louis,  in  Missouri.  Not  only  the  skins 
of  beavers,  otters,  foxes  and  martens,  but 
likewise  those  of  buffaloes,  deer,  rein-deer 
and  elks  are  brought  for  traffic  to  this 
place. 

16.  As  the  skins  of  beavers  form  one 
of  the  prime  articles  in  this  trade,  an  ac- 
count of  the  method  of  catching  them  may 
be  appropriate.  It  should  be  premised, 
that  the  beaver  commonwealths  are  sur- 
prising instances  of  animal  sagacity.    They 


the  skins  soon  begin  to  grow  scarce?    13.   By 
whom  was  the  Canada  trade  begun  ?   14.  Michi- 


live  in  companies  of  three  or  four  hundred. 
Their  first  care  is  to  build  a  dam  across 
some  valley,  through  which  a  small  stream 
runs,  to  stop  the  waters,  and  form  a  lake, 
or  pond.  In  this  they  build  their  huts, 
each  containing  one  or  more  families,  hav- 
ing various  rooms,  for  dwelling  and  for 
stores.  Their  chief  stores  are  branches  of 
favorite  trees,  cut  in  small  lengths.  Bea- 
vers are  sometimes  taken  in  traps  baited 
with  aspen  wood,  but  not  often,  for  they 
are  very  cunning.  The  hunter's  usual 
method  is  to  make  a  hole  in  their  dam 
and  let  the  water  out ;  this  leaves  the  bea- 
vers on  dry  ground,  and  they  are  easily 
killed.  A  few  are  left  to  stock  the  place 
afresh,  and  the  hole  in  the  dam  is  carefully 
stopped  again. 

17.  In  winter,  when  the  lakes  are  frozen, 
the  method  is  to  make  holes  in  the  ice 
around  every  beaver  hut,  over  which  nets 
are  spread.  The  hunters  then  break  down 
the  hut ;  and  the  beavers  instantly  plunge 
into  the  water,  under  the  ice,  but  as  they 
are  obliged  frequently  to  come  to  the  holes 
to  breathe,  they  are  then  entangled  in  the 
nets,  and  taken.  The  hair  of  the  skins 
is  wrought  into  hats  and  other  articles  of 
dress. 

18.  Another  new  and  lucrative  trade, 
suggested  by  the  memorable  navigator 
Capt.  Cook,  consists  in  buying  up  the  skins 
found  about  Nootka  Sound,  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  America,  in  high  latitudes,, 
and  conveying  them  to  China,  where  they 
are  in  great  request,  and  fetch  a  high 
price  :  the  skins  and  furs  obtained  there 
being  far  superior  to  those  found  on  the 
Atlantic  side  of  that  continent,  about  Hud- 
son's Bay. 

19.  Ermines  and  sables  are  used  to  or- 
nament robes  of  high  state  and  dignity  ;  as 
those  of  judges,  peers,  &c. 

20.  Ladies'  muffs,    tippets,  and   trim- 


limackinac  ?     15.  St.  Louis .''    16.  Beaver-skins  f 
17.  In  winter—  ?   18.  What  new  trade  did  Capt, 


52 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


mings,  are  beholden  to  the  bear,  the  gray 
fox,  &c.  Tiger  skins  serve  as  grand  sad- 
dle cloths. 

21.  When  the  hair  alone  is  used,  or 
used  separate  from  the  skin,  the  articles 
are  not  called  furs.  Yet  it  may  not  be 
amiss  to  mention,  that  the  hair  of  our  cows 
is  of  great  use  to  the  plasterer ;  being  min- 
gled with  the  moitar,  it  helps  to  bind  or 
keep  it  together. 

22.  The  long  hair  from  horses'*  tails  is 
woven  into  a  peculiar  sort  of  fabric,  as  a 
covering  for  chair  bottoms.  A  principal 
manufacture  of  this  article  is  at  Worcester, 
in  England.  It  is  spun  also  into  lines  for 
the  laundry,  and  likewise  twisted  into 
bracelets  for  ladies'  wrists. 

23.  The  long  white  silky  hair  of  the 
Angora  goat  is  a  great  article  of  com- 
merce ;  the  finest  stuffs  and  camlets  are 
made  of  it.  Angora  is  a  city  of  Natolia,  in 
Asia  Minor. 

24.  The  hair  of  the  camel  falls  off  every 
spring,  and  is  made  into  fine  stuffs,  for 
coverings  of  tents,  and  articles  of  furni- 
ture. The  artist  feels  his  obligation  here 
also,  as  the  camel-hair  pencils  are  his 
great  dependence,  for  drawing  and  paint- 
mg  in  colors,  especially  in  the  smaller 
sized  pieces. 

25.  The  stiff  hair  of  hogs,  called  bris- 
tles, is  of  considerable  use  in  larger  works 
of  art.  Brushes  of  various  sorts  and  of 
considerable  power  are  made  of  them  ;  and 
the  shoe-maker,  by  their  assistance,  gets 
his  waxed  thread  easily  through  the  hole 
which  his  awl  has  made.  The  best  bris- 
tles come  from  Germany  and  Russia. 

CHAP.  XV. 

FEATHERS. 
1.  Feathers  make  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce,   particularly    those    of  the 


goose,  swan,  ostrich,  heron  and  peacock, 
which  are  used  for  the  filling  of  beds 
writing  pens,  ornaments  of  the  head,  &c. 

2.  Goose  feathers  are  in  most  common 
use  for  beds.  Geese  are  kept  in  vast  flocks 
in  the  fenny  parts  of  Lincolnshire,  in  Eng- 
land. More  profit  is  made  of  these  by 
their  quills  and  feathers,  than,  by  their 
flesh.  They  are  on  this  account  plucked, 
while  alive,  five  times  in  the  course  of  the 
summer.  About  the  end  of  March  their 
quills  are  pulled  out,  and  these  make  the 
pens  we  write  with ;  then  their  feathers 
are  torn  from  them ;  fresh  feathers  grow, 
which  are  again  plucked  every  few  weeks, 


Cook  suggest  ?  19.  What  of  ermines  and  sables  ? 
20.  Muf^,  tiger-skins,  &c.  ?  21.  The  distinction 
beti»^^en  hair  and  fbrs  ?    22.  Horses'  hair  ?    23. 


until  the  poor  birds  are  driven  to  market 
for  sale.  Many  die  under  the  operation, 
if  the  weather  turns  cold  at  the  time. 
When  they  live,  it  is  thus  to  suffer,  and 
then  die.  Fair  death  seems  to  be  less  a 
grievance,  than  these  repeated  tortures. 
EIDER  DOWN. 
3.  This  material,  so  soft,  is  borrowed, 
or  rather  stolen,  from  the  eider  duck ;  a 
wild  bird,  but  one  that  is,  for  the  sake  of 
its  down,  so  kindly  treated,  as  to  be  almost 
tame  at  the  breeding  season.  They  are 
inhabitants  of  Iceland  and  other  northern 
countries,  but  are  often  met  with  in  New 
England  and  Canada.  All  the  islands 
west  of  Scotland  breed  numbers  of  these 


Angora  goat  .^    24.  Camel's  hair.?    25.  Bristles? 

1.   What  of  feathers.?    2.  Geese?    3.    Eider 

down  .'    4.  Where  do  the  eider  ducks  associate  ? 


FEATHERS. 


6^ 


birds,  wliich  are    a   profitable  branch  of 
trade  to  the  poor  inhabitants. 

4.  In  Greenland,  Iceland,  Spitzbergen, 
Lapland,  and  some  of  the  northern  dis- 
tricts of  Norway,  the  eider  ducks  associate 
in  vast  flocks,  having  favorite  breeding- 
places,  usually  on  little  islands  near  the 
shore,  to  which  they  constantly  resort. 
Their  nests  are  often  built  so  close  to- 
gether, that  a  man  can  hardly  walk  among 
them  without  treading  on  their  eggs.  The 
Inhabitants  wat<!h  them,  when  they  begin 
to  lay,  and  take  some  of  their  first  eggs 
for  food. 

5.  Their  laying  and  hatching  continue 
for  nearly  two  months.  Once  a  week,  or 
so,  the  natives  visit  their  breedmg-places. 


and  seize  a  great  part  of  the  down  with 
which  these  fond  creatures  line  their  nests 
and  cover  their  eggs.  When  the  duck  has 
torn  all  the  down  from  her  own  breast, 
by  replacing  what  had  been  stolen  away, 
her  partner,  the  drake,  assists  her  with  his. 
About  half  a  pound  of  this  down  is  ob- 
tained from  each  nest,  during  the  season. 
Iceland  usually  exports  to  Denmark  from 
1,500  to  2,000  pounds' weight ;  which,  as 
it  is  a  very  light  substance,  must  constitute 
a  considerable  bulk. 

OSTRICH  FEATHERS. 
6     It  is  for  its  plumage  only  that  the 
ostrich  is  hunted  ;    although  its  eggs  are 


5.  Their  laying  and   hatching  ?     6.  7.  What  of 
ostrich-feathers?    8.  Peacock?    9.  Argus  phea- 


good  as  articles  of  food.  Some  of  the 
ostrich  feathers  arc  white,  some  black,  and 
some  gray ;  and  they  may  be  died  of  any 
color  by  the  feather  dressers. 

7.  As  adornments  of  dress,  they  certain- 
ly rank  high  for  beauty,  whether  they  be 
white  or  black.  Such  as  are  plucked  from 
the  bird  while  alive  are  much  the  most 
valuable,  as  being  stronger  and  less  hablc 
to  decay.  Ostrich  feathers  are  brought  to 
us  from  Africa,  and  particularly  from  the 
coast  of  Barbary.  Immense  quantities  are 
bought  up  by  the  merchants  of  Leghorn. 

8.  Other  Ornamental  Feathers.  The 
feathers  of  the  peacock  are  in  some  de- 
mand as  ornaments  for  the  head.  This 
bird  surpasses  in  the  splendor  and  variety 
of  its  colors,  all  the  rest  of  the  feathery 
creation.  Of  this  he  seems  proudly  con- 
scious, when  he  struts  about  enjoying  the 
bright  sun.  The  length  and  the  beauty 
of  this  feather  require  a  noble  and  elegant 
figure,  to  bear  it  with  propriety,  as  part  of 
the  head-dress. 

9.,  There  are  a  few  feathers  in  the  wing 
of  the  Argus  pheasant,  of  great  beauty. 
They  do  not  possess  a  great  variety  of 
colors,  for  the  marks  are  only  different 
shades  of  a  lightish  brown,  or  stone  color ; 
but  they  appear  in  regular  rings  and  spots, 
from  end  to  end,  in  a  manner  which  gives 
the  idea  of  their  being  artificially  produced. 
They  form  a  very  elegant  ornament. 

10.  The  Egret,  a  small  sort  of  heron, 
bears  on  his  head  a  very  beautiful  tuft  of 
feathers.  In  the  days  of  chivalry,  warriors 
wore  them  on  their  helmets.  They  are 
now  in  request  as  ornaments  for  ladies' 
head-dresses;  and  the  Turks  and  Persians 
wear  them  in  their  turbans.  The  bird  was 
once  very  plentiful  in  England,  but  is  now 
scarce  ;  though  it  may  be  found  in  moist 
places,  in  all  the  temperate  climates  of  the 
globe. 


sant?     10    Egret?    For  what  are   they  now  in 
request  ? 


54 


BOOS    OF    COMMEACE. 


CHAP.  XVI. 

PERFUMES,  &c. 

1.  Hungary  water  is  so  called  from  a 
queen  of  Hungary,  who  was  cured  by  it 
of  a  palsy.  It  is  distilled  with  spirits  from 
rosemary.  It  is  now  principally  manufac- 
tured in  France,  under  the  name  of  Co- 
logne-water. 

2.  Lavender-water  is  distilled  from  the 
flowers  of  lavender,  with  spirits  also. 

3.  Musk  is  one  of  the  strongest  scents 
m  nature.  It  is  scarcely  endurable  un- 
less much  diluted,  and  mixed  with  other 
weaker  perfumes.  Musk  is  a  sort  of  co- 
agulated blood,  found  in  a  bag  under  the 
belly  of  a  creature  which  runs  wild  in 
the  forests  of  Thibet,  Tonquin,and  Cochin 
China.  There  the  animal  is  of  the  ante- 
lope or  goat  kind  ;  but  the  species  seems 
not  to  be  well  known  to  naturahsts ;  per- 
haps there  may  be  several  sorts. 

4.  The  hunters  cut  off  the  bag,  and 
leave  the  creature  to  perish.  A  great 
many  of  these  animals  must  be  destroy- 
ed annually,  for  immense  numbers  oY  the 
bags  come  over,  each  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg.  Musk  is  of  considerable 
service  in  medicine. 

5.  The  Civet  is  of  the  weazel  kind,  and 
carries  its  bag  of  perfume  behind.  It  is  of 
a  milder  and  more  pleasant  fragrance  than 
musk ;  the  creature  is  wild  in  the  warmer 
climates,  but  it  will  live  in  colder  regions, 
if  kept  carefully.  The  Turks,  Indians,  Af- 
ricans, and  even  the  Dutch,  keep  them  as 
articles  of  trade.  With  a  wooden  spoon, 
they  scrape  out  this  perfumed  substance, 
every  few  days;  and  make  great  profit, 
as  the  demand  for  it  is  very  considerable. 
Much  of  it  is  brought  from  the  East  Indies, 
about  Calicut ;  from  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
and  from  Brazil. 


1 .  Whence  did  Hungary- water  derive  its  name  ? 
2.  What  is  lavender  water  distilled  from?  3. 
What  of  musk  ?   4.  Civet?    6.  7.  Ottar  of  roses? 


OTTAR  OF  ROSES 

6.  This  fragrant  perfume  is  the  essentia 
oil  of  roses.  Roses  are  cultivated  in  tne 
East  Indies,  in  whole  fields  in  order  to 
obtain  this  precious  commodity.  It  is 
found  as  a  scum,  rising  upon  i-ose-wa- 
ter,  repeatedly  and  carefully  distilled.  So 
small  a  quantity  of  oil  is  obtained  from  a 
large  fiekl  of  roses,  that  the  price  has  al- 
ways been  enormous. 

7.  It  is  said,  at  one  time,  to  have  been 
a  guinea  a  drop ;  but  the  ottar  may  be  ob- 
tained with  less  trouble  than  by  distilla- 
tion, by  exposing  to  the  sun,  water,  in 
which  are  steeping  the  petals  of  the  rose, 
cleared  from  all  the  stalks  and  green  parts. 
This  must  be  covered  up  warm  at  night. 
When  the  scum  rises,  it  may  be  taken  off 
by  a  small  piece  of  cotton  fastened  to  the 
end  of  a  stick  ;  this  is  squeezed  into  some 
very  diminutive  vial,  and  stopped  close,  to 
preserve  it  from  the  air,  until  used. 

SOAP. 

8.  Soap  is  a  composition  of  oil  or  fai, 
and  potashes  or  any  other  alkali.  You 
must  remember  that  alkali  is  a  substance 
obtained  from  the  ashes  of  certain  plants 
when  burnt,  or  it  may  be  obtained  from 
some  mineral  bodies,  particularly  common 
salt.  Alkali  will  unite  with  oil  or  tallow 
When  united  the  two  make  that  hard  sub 
stance  called  soap. 

9.  The  greatest  quantities  of  soap  are 
made  in  Spain,  Portugal,  France  and 
Italy ;  olive  oil  being  in  those  countries 
most  plentiful.  That  which  is  called  Cas- 
tile soap  comes  from  Spain. 

10.  The  soap  met  with  in  commerce  is 
generally  divided  into  two  sorts,  the  Jiard^ 
which  is  made  of  soda  and  tallow  or  oil, 
and  the  soft,  which  is  made  of  potash,  and 
the  same  oily  matters.  Soap  made  of 
tallow  and  soda  has  a  whitish  color,  and 


8.  Soap  ?  From  what  substances  may  alkali  be 
obtained  ?  9.  Where  are  the  greatest  quantities  of 
soap  made  ?   10.  Into  how  many  sorts  is  tlie  soap 


CHINA,  POTTERY    WARE,    &C. 


66 


is,  therefore,  sometimes  denominated  tvhite 
soap  ;  but  it  is  usual  for  soap-makers,  in 
order  to  lower  the  price  of  the  article,  to 
mix  a  considerable  portion  of  rosin  with 
the  tallow ;  this  mixture  forms  the  com- 
mon yellow  soap  of  the  country. 

11.  Soap  may  be  easily  scented  with 
any  perfume,  and  dyed  of  various  colors. 
The  soap  manufactured  at  Windsor,  in 
England,  is  in  high  repute.  Soap  im- 
proves by  age. 

12.  There  are  various  kinds  of  cosme- 
tics and  lotions  for  the  skin,  which  are  a 
considerable  article  of  trade.  But  the  use 
of  these  is  injurious,  and  they  sometimes 
turn  the  skin  to  a  lead  color,  or  even 
black,  when  mineral  fumes  happen  to  meet 
them.  A  preparation  is  made  from  bears' 
grease,  which  is  efficacious  in  improving 
the  growth  of  the  hair. 

CHAP.  XVII. 
CHINA,  POTTERY  WARE,  &c. 

1.  The  art  of  manufacturing  China 
ware,  as  may  be  supposed  from  its  name, 
was  originally  obtained  from  China.  The 
commercial  term  for  China  ware  is  por- 
celain. This,  however,  i#  not  a  Chinese 
word,  but  comes  to  us  from  the  Portu- 
guese, who  first  brought  over  these  beau- 
tiful wares,  and  with  whom  the  word  por- 
cellana  means  a  cup. 

2.  Porcelain,  as  distinguished  from  other 
wares  formed  of  earth,  means  something 
fine  in  its  texture,  half-transparent,  and 
beautiful  in  its  colors.  Pottery,  stone 
ware,  &c.  are  opaque  ;  glass  is  extremely 
transparent ;  porcelain  seems  to  come  be- 
tween the  two,  as  partaking  somewhat  of 
both. 

3.  Although  we  call  it  China  ware  by 


of  commerce  divided  ?  11.  May  it  be  easily  scent- 
ed ?  12.  What  of  cosmetics  ? 

1.  What  of  China  ware,  or  porcelain?    From 
what  is  the  word  porcelain  derived  ?    2.  What  is 


way  of  excellence,  yet,  it  is  said,  a  far  su- 
perior sort  is  manufactured  in  Japan  ;  but 
as  the  Japanese  keep  it  all  to  themselves, 
we  must  take  their  word  for  it,  and  be 
content. 

4.  Porcelain  is  an  article  of  very  exten- 
sive manufacture  in  China.  The  origin  of 
it  is  beyond  date ;  as  the  earliest  records 
speak  of  it  as  having  always  been  in  com- 
mon use.  The  town  of  King-te-tching, 
where  is  the  principal  manufacture,  is  four 
or  five  miles  long,  and  contains  a  million 
of  inhabitants. 

5.  There  are  two  substances  necessary 
for  this  ware,  called  by  the  manufacturers 
petuntse,  and  kaolin.  The  last  is  a  white 
clay,  and  the  former  a  flint ;  both  are  re- 
duced to  a  very  line  powder,  and  washed 
repeatedly,  with  extreme  care.  These  are 
then  mixed  thoroughly  together ;  and  be- 
ing thrown  into  a  large  well-paved  pit, 
the  substance  is  well  trodden,  and  after- 
wards kneaded  together  with  the  hands, 
with  great  and  incessant  labor ;  care  being 
taken  that  not  a  single  hair,  nor  a  particle 
of  sand,  should  be  mingled  with  it ;  for  any 
foreign  substance  would  spoil  the  compo- 
sition, and  occasion  cracks  and  warping, 
when  the  ware  came  to  the  fire. 

6.  This  clay  has  then  to  pass  through 
many  operations  to  give  it  shape.  The 
first  workman  makes  it  into  a  sort  of  semi- 
circular cup ;  this  shape  is  given  it  by  a 
wheel,  in  a  moment ;  the  next  forms  the 
base,  on  which  the  cup  stands:  a  third, 
by  a  mould,  gives  it,  while  still  soft,  its 
exact  shape.  A  fourth  polishes  it  with  his 
chisel,  and  reduces  its  thickness  greatly,  to 
help  its  transparency. 

7.  This  is  but  a  general  account ;  for  it 
is  said  that  seventy  workmen  handle  a  cup 
before  it  comes  to  us  fit  for  use.     Some 


the  difference  between  porcelain  and  pottery  ? 
3.  Is  it  made  in  Japan  ?  4.  China  ?  5.  What  two 
substances  are  necessary  for  the  ware  ?  6.  Thia 
clay  has  then  to  pass —  ?  7.  How  many  workmen 


66 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


pieces  of  China  have  large  ornaments  upon 
them;  these  are  formed  separately,  and 
fastened  on  with  the  same  kind  of  clay, 
greatly  diluted. 

8.  When  the  shape  is  thus  formed,  it  is 
given  to  the  painters,  of  whom  there  are 
many.  He  who  paints  the  colored  circle 
round  the  brim,  does  nothing  else ;  if  one 
man  traces  the  outlines  for  the  flowers,  it 
is  the  business  of  another  to  paint  them. 
Supposing  it  to  be  a  landscape,  one  paints 
mountains  only,  another  trees;  and  the 
birds  are  not  put  in  by  the  same  hand 
which  paints  the  human  figure. 

9.  It  is  next  to  be  glazed,  or  varnished  ; 
which  is  done  with  a  sort  of  cream,  made 
of  powdered  flint.  When  carried  to  the 
furnace  for  baking,  each  article  is  enclos- 
ed in  a  case,  to  keep  it  to  its  shape.  The 
furnace  is  heated  a  day  and  a  night,  be- 
fore the  ware  is  put  in,  and  the  whole  is 
made  red  hot,  by  the  passage  of  the  flame 
on  every  side.  By  this  heat  the  flinty 
petuntse  would  be  completely  vitrified,  or 
made  transparent  as  glass ;  but  the  clayey 
kaolin,  which  is  every  where  intermingled, 
being  incapable  of  fusion,  or  melting,  the 
whole  together  assumes  the  delicate  ap- 
pearance so  much  admired. 

10.  Porcelain  is  sometimes  left  without 
glazing,  as  in  figures  and  ornaments ;  it 
is  then  called  biscuit,  and  is  delicately 
white,  almost  like  marble.  The  colors 
used  in  painting  porcelain  are  all  metal- 
lic, like  those  used  in  enamelling.  They 
are  ground  with  gum-water,  or  with  some 
essential  oil. 

11.  All  those  articles  which  can  be  form- 
ed with  the  turning  lathe,  are  so  produced. 
Those  which  are  not  round  in  shape,  are 
formed  by  pressing  the  prepared  clay  into 
moulds,  with  the  hands.     Figures  are  cast 

are  said  to  handle  a  cup  before  it  is  ready  for  use  ? 
8.  What  of  the  painting  of  China?  9.  What  is 
next  done  to  it?  10.  What  is  porcelain  called 
when  left  without  glazing  ?    The  colors  used  in 


in  moulds  of  plaster  of  Paris,  the  clay  b^- 
ing  rendered  considerably  liquid  by  water 
The  mould  imbibes  the  liquid,  and  leaves 
the  figure  perfect  and  firm.  Sometimes, 
the  diflTerent  parts  of  a  figure  are  cast  in 
separate  moulds,  as  the  head,  arms,  &c.» 
these  are  afterwards  joined  together  with  ^ 
some  liquid  clay,  and  smoothed  at  tho 
joinings,  before  they  are  baked. 

12.  In  England,  in  many  cases,  th* 
various  colors  in  the  painting  are  laid  on 
separately,  and  each  color  is  fixed  by 
baking,  before  the  next  is  put  on.  The 
gilding  is  executed  by  a  solution  of  gold, 
mixed  with  quicksilver,  and  ground  up 
with  oil,  and  laid  on  with  a  camel's-hair 
pencil.  In  the  oven,  the  gold  fastens  to  the 
porcelain  ;  and  the  quick-silver  is  evapo- 
rated. The  gold  at  first  appears  dull,  but  is 
afterwards  burnished. 

13.  The  Europeans  have  imitated  this 
delicate  ware,  and  brought  their  manufac- 
ture to  great  perfection.  Saxony  first  be-  • 
gan ;  and  Dresden  china  is  in  high  repute. 
There  are  establishments  for  this  ware 
also  at  Vienna,  near  Berlin,  and  at  Frank- 
endal,  all  in  Germany.  Italy  has  porce- 
lain works  at  Florence,  and  Naples ;  even 
statues,  half  the  size  of  life,  are  form- 
ed most  beautifully  at  the  former  place. 
France  has  excellent  china-works  at  Ville- 
roy,  Chantilly,  Orleans,  but  especially  at 
Sevres,  near  Paris ;  where  elegance  of 
shape,  and  beauty  of  colors  and  designs, 
are  exhibited  in  great  perfection. 

14.  At  Tournay,  the  cups  are  formed 
diflferently,  the  clay  being  neither  turned 
in  the  lathe,  nor  pressed  into  shape.  It  is 
made  so  liquid  as  to  run  into  the  mould, 
which  is  filled  with  it,  and  suflfered  to 
stand  a  little  ;  then  what  has  not  adhered 
to  the  sides  of  the  moulds  is  poured  out, 


painting — ?  11.  Those  articles  which  can  be 
formed  with  the  turning  lathe  ?  12.  What  is  some- 
times done  in  England  ?  13.  Have  the  Europeans 
imitated  the  China  ware  ?   14.  At  Tournay,  how 


CHINA,    POTTERY    WARE,    &«. 


57 


and  that  which  remains  attached  constitutes 
the  cup.  At  Derby,  and  at  Worcester,  in 
England,  there  are  extensive  works,  and 
very  beautiful  articles  are  made. 

15.  Porcelain  earth  is  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  will  doubt- 
less one  day  constitute  the  material  of  ex- 
tensile manufactures.  But  the  finer  and 
more  costly  kinds  of  porcelain  derive  their 
value,  more  from  the  labor  bestowed  upon 
their  external  decoration  than  from  the 
quality  of  the  material. 

POTTERY. 

16.  Pottery,  or  the  forming  of  vessels  of 
earth  for  the  use  of  man,  is  very  ancient. 
David  says  of  the  wicked,  "they  shall  be 
dashed  in  pieces  as  a  potter's  vessel ;"  and 
Jeremiah  broke  one,  as  an  example  of  di- 
vine vengeance.  The  Chinese  annals  go 
very  far  back  ;  but  the  art  of  making  pot- 
tery was  known  before  their  beginning; 
for  their  first  accounts  speak  of  it  as  a  thing 
of  long  standing. 

17.  The  Egyptians  were  famous  in  their 
day  for  such  wares  ;  from  them  the  Greeks 
learned  the  art ;  and  from  the  Greeks,  pot- 
tery passed  into  Italy,  to  Etruria  in  Tus- 
cany, and  to  Rome. 

18.  Some  admirable  specimens  of  Etrus- 
can pottery  which  are  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  gave  Mr.  Wedgewood  the 
ambition  to  try  to  rival  them  in  Eng- 
land. About  the  year  1763  he  invented  a 
new  kind  of  ware,  which  is  manufactured 
under  the  name  of  queen's  ware  or  Wedge- 
wood  ware.  Clay  from  Devonshire,  and 
flint  from  the  Thames,  are  carried,  at  a 
great  expense,  into  Staffordshire,  for  its 
formation. 

19.  Mr.  Wedgewood  raised  a  village,  or 
rather  a  series  of  villages,  which  he  called 
Etruria,  and  which  contains  about  ten 
thousand  people,  all  of  whom  are  employed 


are  cups  made  ?  15.  Is  porcelain  earth  found  in 
the  U  nited  States  ?  16.  What  of  pottery  ?  17.  The 
Egyptians—?  18.  What  did  Mr.  Wedgewood  in- 


in  these   potteries.     Great   quantities   of 
queen's  ware  are  exported. 

20.  The  delft- ware  is  made  of  clay,  hav- 
ing a  thick  coat  of  enamel  within  and  with- 
out. It  is  brittle,  and  now  but  little  used. 
Common  brown  ware  is  made  in  many 
places;  and  a  very  neat  blue  and  white 
ware  is  held  in  considerable  estimation,  as 
in  some  degree  resembling  foreign  China. 

21.  I  will  now  tell  you  about  the  pro- 
cess of  making  pottery.  Clay  alone  may, 
by  burning,  be  made  sufficiently  hard  and 
neat  for  bricks:  but  it  will  not  work  so 
thin  as  is  requisite  for  drinking  vessels, 
and  it  would  crack  in  the  baking — there- 
fore some  tougher  substance  must  be  min- 
gled with  it.  The  substance  found  to  an- 
swer best  is  flint,  reduced  to  powder.  This 
gives  strength  to  the  clay,  and  the  whole 
composition  when  baked  becomes  earthen- 
ware, which  is  valued  chiefly  according  to 
the  proportions  in  which  the  ingredients 
are  mixed  together,  and  the  care  taken  to 
have  each  pure  and  finely  pulverized. 

22.  For  this  purpose  the  clays  are  dis- 
solved in  water ;  the  mixture  is  well  stirred 
about ;  a  little  time  is  allowed  for  the  grit 
and  sand  to  settle ;  then  the  mixture  is 
drawn  off,  when  the  clay  sinks  to  the  bot  • 
tom,  and  the  water  is  easily  poured  away. 
This  clay  is  also  well  beaten,  to  mix  it, 
and  give  it  a  sort  of  tough  pliancy.  The 
flints  are  pounded  and  sifted,  when  the 
fine  dust  is  mingled  with  the  purified  clay, 
in  such  proportions  as  are  best  for  the 
ware  intended  to  be  made. 

23.  This  mixture  is  by  water  made  into 
a  tpugh  paste,  sufficiently  soft  to  be  easily 
wrought  into  shape.  The  manner  of  shap- 
ing it  is  either  by  pressing  it  in  moulds, 
or  working  it  on  the  wheel.  All  round 
dishes,  basins,  ewers,  &c.  are  formed  in 
the  way  first  mentioned. 


vent  ?  19.  What  of  Etruria  ?  26.  Delft  ware  ? 
21,  22,  23.  Describe  the  process  of  making  pot- 
tery.   24.  What  is  done  with  the  articles  when 

D 


5b 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


24.  When  quite  formed,  the  various  ar-  | 
tides  are  first  dried  by  a  gentle  heat,  and 
then  thoroughly  baked  by  a  more  violent 
fire,  by  which  they  are  almost  vitrified, 
that  is,  they  are  no  longer  dried  clay,  but 
almost  glass.  They  are  put  into  cases  of 
the  same  shape,  made  of  clay,  that  they 
may  endure  the  fire  without  being  warped. 
The  vessels  thus  forwarded,  are  called 
biscuit ;  but  as  they  have  a  dull  appear- 
ance, they  must  now  be  glazed. 

25.  Common  stone  wares  are  glazed  by 
a  very  simple  process.  When  they  are 
in  the  oven,  a  handful  of  salt  is  thrown 
into  the  fire :  this  instantly  becomes  vapor, 
which  fixes  on  the  biscuit,  and  settles  in  a 
glassy  polish.  But  for  Queen's  ware,  a 
mixture  is  made  of  water,  white  lead, 
ground  flint,  and  pounded  glass.  Into  this 
each  piece  is  dipped ;  the  fierceness  of  the 
fire  fuses  (that  is,  melts)  the  several  ingre- 
dients, and  the  mass  settles  as  a  glass  coat 
on  the  surface  of  each  piece. 

SPAR  ORNAMENTS. 

26.  The  hard  mineral  substance  called 
spar  is  formed  in  the  crevices  in  the  sides 
of  caverns.  It  is  shaped  into  various  or- 
naments such  as  vases,  columns  and  can- 
dlesticks, which  are  used  chiefly  for  our 
mantlepieces. 

ALABASTER,  &c. 

27.  This  is  a  kind  of  stone  resembling 
marble,  but  softer.  It  is  of  various  colors, 
but  the  white  shining  alabaster  is  most 
common.  It  is  used  by  the  sculptors  for 
the  formation  of  small  statues,  vases,  col 
umns,  &c.  It  is  found  in  great  quantities 
in  some  parts  of  England ;  and  there  are 
places  in  our  own  country  where  it  may 
be  obtained.  Plaster  of  Paris  is  a  composi- 
tion of  several  species  of  gypsum  dug  near 
Montmartre,  near  Paris,  in  France,  used 
in  building  and  in  casting  busts  and  statues. 


formed  ?  25.  How  are  common  stone  wares  glaz- 
ed ?  26.  What  of  spar  ornaments  ?  27.  Alabaster  ? 
Plaster  of  Paris .' 


CHAP.  XVIII. 

GLASS  WARE. 

L  The  first  discovery  of  glass  was  madf 
by  one  of  those  accidents,  which  happen- 
ing to  an  inquisitive  mind,  often  lead  to  the 
most  important  and  unlooked-for  results. 
Pliny,  an  ancient  writer,  tells  us  that  some 
merchants  were  driven  by  a  storm,  to  take 
shelter  near  the  mouth  of  a  river,  in  Syria, 
where  they  were  obliged  to  continue  several 
days.  They  landed,  therefore,  and  made  a 
fire  on  the  sands  on  the  edge  of  the  shore, 
in  order  to  cook  their  food ;  and  they  gath- 
ered the  wild  plants  growing  about,  for 
fuel.  To  their  great  surprise,  when  their 
fire  was  extinguished,  they  discovered  cer- 
tain lumps,  of  a  half-transparent  substance, 
which  glittered  almost  like  precious  stones. 

2.  Some  persons  who  heard  of  this 
wonder,  made  inquiry  as  to  the  plants 
used,  which  they  found  to  be  what  is  com- 
monly called  kali.  They  tried  experi- 
ments, by  burning  this  plant ;  but  nothing 
came  of  it ;  they  then  burned  some  of  it 
with  some  of  the  sand  intermingled ;  and 
soon  found,  they  could  thus  form,  at  pleas- 
ure, the  substance  now  called  glass.  The 
people  of  the  neighboring  city,  Sidon,were 
very  industrious  in  pursuing  the  discovery, 
and  they  established  a  manufacture  for  the 
supply  of  all  the  countries  round. 

3.  The  glass  then  manufactured,  must 
have  been  much  inferior  to  what  is  now 
produced  ;  materials  so  coarse,  and  so  lit- 
tle selected,  could  not  furnish  an  elegant 
fabric. 

4.  Sand,  and  the  ashes,  or  salts,  of  tha 
plant  kali,  will  make  glass,  if  melted  to- 
gether in  a  fierce  fire.  But,  in  the  present 
day,  other  things  are  added,  in  order  to 
render  it  brilliantly  clear,  or  to  give  it  some 
beautiful    color.     The    salts    requisite  aro 

] .  How  was  glass  discovered  ?  2.  What  wer« 
the  plants  used  ?  3.  Was  the  glass  then  manu 
factured  equal  to  that  which  is  now  produced  ' 


CLASS    WARE. 


69 


euiled,  from  the  original  plant,  alkalies.  Iii- 
etead  of  sand,  which  is  a  mixture  of  many 
stony  substances,  clear  flint,  ground  to 
powder,  is  used  for  the  finest  specimens; 
but  this  is  too  expensive  for  common  use. 
t^ands,  which,  under  the  microscope,  ap- 
^ar  white,  and  half  transparent,  do  well. 
o.  Some  stones  found  in  rivers  are  ex- 
®;ellent,  as  are  many  in  our  gravel  pits ; 
out  the  white  sand  is  in  greatest  repute. 
Manganese,  lead,  and  nitre,  are  in  use,  as 
jtdditions,  but  very  sparingly  ;  these  tend 
«o  render  the  glass  more  clear,  and  color- 
less, if  not  added  in  too  great  quantities. 

6.  To  two  hundred  weight  of  this  white 
iand,  or   stones  pounded  small,  is  added 

"*>ather  more  than  half  that  quantity  of 
jpearl-ash,  which  is  the  alkali ;  this  is  kept 
in  a  furnace  for  about  an  hour,  by  which 
time  the  mass  is  melted  and  well  incorpo- 
rated together.  The  fire  is  then  greatly 
increased,  and  continued  for  five  hours 
^niore,  by  which  time  the  mass  becomes 
■^what  is  now  denominated /n'^ 

7.  As,  in  metallurgy,  many  ores  will  not 
ffielt  without  something,  called  a  Jlux,  to 
aiake  them  flow,  so,  here,  the  crystal  sand  is 
melted  by  the  help  of  the  alkahne  salts ;  and 
being  run  into  one  body,  is  ready  for  use. 


8.  If  you  should  go  into  a  glass-house, 
you  would  see  a  man  who  has  a  long  tube 
of  iron  in  his  hand.     He  dips  one  end  into 


'4.  What  will  make  glass  ?  5.  What  is  said  of  the 
use  of  manganese,  lead  and  nitre  ?    6.  To  two 


a  pot  of  melted  glass,  some  of  which  sticks 
to  the  iron  tube.  The  glass  in  that  state 
is  almost  liquid,  and  will  run  any  way. 
The  iron  being  hollow  he  can  blow 
through  it.  He  claps  his  mouth  to  the 
near  end,  and  blows ;  his  breath  is  dilated 
by  the  heat  of  the  glass,  and  the  glass 
swells  out,  like  a  bladder  when  blown  into. 
The  more  it  swells  in  size,  the  thinner  it 
becomes  in  substance.  He  repeatedly 
rolls  it,  too,  on  a  flat  piece  of  iron,  or  mar- 
ble, to  shape  and  polish  it.  If  he  is  going 
to  make  a  goblet,  he  opens  the  end  of  the 
bladder  of  glass,  and  whirls  his  iron 
round,  which  makes  the  glass  fly  open  in  - 
to  the  wide  shape  wanted :  were  it  a  bot- 
tle, he  would  put  the  lump  into  a  mould, 
and  his  blowing  would  force  the  glass  into 
the  exact  shape  of  the  mould.  Then  he 
would  open  the  neck,  forming  it  with  a 
piece  of  iron,  or  cutting  it  with  scissors. 

9.  To  make  window  glass,  which  you 
know  must  be  quite  flat,  he  dips  the  iron 
tube  several  times  into  the  melted  glass, 
and  blows  till  it  becomes  of  a  large  size. 
He  is  obliged  to  take  his  work  to  the  fur- 
nace frequently,  to  heat  it  afresh,  because 
when  it  gets  cool  he  cannot  work  it  any 
longer.  This  globe  of  glass  is  opened, 
and  this  opening  is  worked  wider  and 
wider,  till  the  glass,  which  was  a  globe, 
becomes  quite  flat — a  whole  circle  of  thin 
flat  glass — except  the  knob  in  the  middle, 
by  which  the  iron  rod  held  it. 

10.  At  another  furnace  you  would  see 
them  making  what  is  called  plate  glass,  for 
mirrors.  Here  you  perceive  a  flat  table, 
covered  with  copper,  with  ledges  at  the 
sides  to  keep  it  in.  They  pour  some  melt- 
ed glass  from  the  furnace  upon  this  table. 
It  runs  all  over  it,  up  to  the  ledges ;  but 
in  order  to  make  it  perfectly  flat,  and  of 
an  even  thickness,  the  man  passes  a  huge 
metal  roller  over  it. 


hundred  weight  of  this  white  sand —  ?    7.  What 

is  meant  by  a  flux  in  metallurgy  ?  8.  How  is  the 

s2 


60 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


11.  When  cold,  this  plate  of  glass  must 
be  ground  on  both  sides  with  sand  ;  then 
polished  with  emery  and  putty,  till  the 
surfaces  are  extremely  smooth.  Yet  it  is 
not  a  looking-glass,  till  a  thin  coat  of 
quicksilver  is  fixed  on  the  back  of  it. 

12.  When  the  glass  is  brought  to  its 
proper  shape,  it  must  undergo  another 
process  before  it  is  fit  for  use ;  this  is  call- 
ed annealing.  The  pieces  of  ware  must 
be  brought  so  near  the  fire,  as  to  be  almost 
in  a  melting  state ;  they  must  be  drawn 
away  in  a  very  gradual  manner,  so  as  to 
cool  gently ;  else  they  would  be  so  brittle 
as  not  to  bear  hot  water ;  and  they  would 
break  too  with  the  slightest  stroke. 

13.  The  silvering  of  the  plate  glass  for 
mirrors  is  not  done  at  the  glass-house ; 
but  aa.1  suppose  you  are  curious  to  know 
how  quicksilver  can  be  fastened  upon 
glass,  I  will  tell  you.  It  is  called  silver- 
mg  the  glass  ;  although,  in  fact,  it  is  tin- 
ning the  glass ;  for  it  is  a  sheet  of  tin  foil 
which  is  fastened  upon  the  glass  by  the 
help  of  quicksilver,  which  dissolves  and 
mingles  with  the  tin  foil,  and  thus  adheres. 
Tin  foil  is  pure  tin,  beaten  out  to  a  very 
thin  leaf.  This  must  be  the  whole  size  of 
the  glass.  The  foil  is  laid  on  a  very  flat 
smooth  stone  table ;  quicksilver  is  poured 
on  this,  till  it  is  floated  with  it ;  the  glass 
is  then  placed  on  it,  and  pressed  down 
with  leaden  weights.  It  remains  thus  for 
several  days,  till  the  mixture  cleaves  firm- 
ly to  the  glass. 

14.  You  would  perhaps  like  to  know 
about  the  cutting  of  glass.  You  see  many 
wine  glasses  and  decanters  have  formed 
on  them  beautiful  shapes,  knobs  and  an- 
gles, which  glitter  and  show  a  variety  of 
colors ;  now  this  is  done  by  grinding. 
Glass,  to  be  cut,  is  held  against  a  sharp 


glass  blown  ?  9.  Window  glass  made  ?  1 0.  Plate 
glass?  11.  Is  it  polished?  12.  Describe  the  pro- 
cess of  annealing.  13.  How  is  the  quicksilver 
fastened  to  the  glass  ?    14.  What  is  meant  by  cut 


wheel,  which  revolves  swiftly ;  and  the 
workman  by  moving  the  glass  produces 
the  diflEerent  designs — squares,  triangles, 
diamonds  &c. — which  you  see  upon  it. 

15.  The  Venetians  were  long  preemi 
nent  in  the  art  of  making  glass,  both  as  to 
purity  and  magnitude.  During  the  thir- 
teenth century,  they  were  the  only  people 
who  were  able  to  fabricate  mirrors  of  a 
large  size,  fit  for  the  decoration  of  splendid 
apartments.  All  the  European  courts 
were  obliged  to  buy  of  them,  not  only 
looking-glasses,  but  all  the  better  sort  of 
glass  vessels,  as  well  for  use  as  elegance. 

16.  This  manufacture  was  too  impor- 
tant, and  too  profitable,  to  be  suffered  long 
to  remain  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  one 
nation,  especially  when  the  use  of  glass 
for  windows  had  been  thoroughly  intro- 
duced. This  convenience  first  appeared 
in  England  in  674,  when  the  monastery 
of  Weremouth  was  glazed.  But  the  first 
manufacture  of  the  kind  was  in  1557, 
when  fine  flint  glass  was  produced.  Ex- 
cellent glass  is  now  manufactured  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  United  States. 

17.  Glass,  for  windows,  and  for  glazing 
prints,  called  Crown-glass,  is  an  article  of 
great  use.  For  a  long  season,  all  this  kind 
of  glass,  made  in  England,  had  a  greenish 
tint ;  till  one  person,  who  had  his  manu- 
factory in  London,  was  able  to  produce  it 
clear,  and  he  made  a  great  fortune.  You 
may  suppose  his  method  was  of  some  im- 
portance, since  he  was  offered  more  than 
seventeen  thousand  dollars  for  the  secret. 
He,  however,  wanted  twenty  thousand ;  and 
because  he  could  not  get  that  price,  his  se- 
cret died  with  him. 

18.  Glass  may  be  colored  by  the  addi- 
tion of  various  substances,  chiefly  oxydes, 
or  rust  of  metals.     Glass  of  a  very  fine 


glass  ?  15.  Were  the  Venetians  famed  for  the  art 
of  making  glass?  16.  When  was  it  introduced 
into  England?  17.  What  is  meant  by  crown 
glass  ?  18.  May  glass  be  colored  ?  What  is  paste  ? 


IVORT,   JEWELRY,    &C. 


6\ 


and  hard  textwre,  s  coxored,  so  well  as  to 
represent  most  of  the  more  precious  gems. 
When  quite  clear  from  color,  it  is  called 
paste,  and  was  once  much  in  ftishion,  as 
producing  a  brilliancy  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  diamonds.  The  French  are  fond  of  it 
still. 

CHAP.  XIX. 
IVORY,  JEWELRY,  &c. 

IVORY. 

1.  Ivory  is  a  hard,  sohd  and  firm  sub- 
nance,  of  a  white  color,  and  capable  of  a 
•'ery  good  polish.  It  is  the  tusk  of  the 
ilephant,  and  is  hollow  from  the  base  to  a 
.certain  height,  the  cavity  being  filled  up 
with  a  compact  substance,  similar  to  mar- 
row. The  Ceylon  ivory,  and  that  of  the 
island  of  Achem,  do  not  become  yelloAV  in 
the  wearing,  as  all  other  ivory  does.  For 
this  reason  the  teeth  of  those  places  bear 
a  higher  price  than  those  of  the  coast  of 
Guinea. 

2.  Ivory  is  usually  brought  to  us  from  the 
coasts  of  Africa,  where  elephants  abound. 
The  elephants'  teeth  of  Asia  are  not  more 
than  three  or  four  feet  in  length  ;  but  those 
of  Africa,  especially  such  as  are  procured 
from  Bombaza,  and  Mozambique,  are  sel- 
dom less  than  ten  feet  long,  and  are  so 
heavy,  that  two  men  can  with  difficulty 
carry  one  of  them. 

3.  Ivory,  among  the  wholesale  dealers 
in  the  article,  is  divided  into  elephants' 
teeth,  properly  so  called,  and  schrivelli, 
or  schrivellos,  which  last  consist  of  the 
smallest  teeth  and  fragments. 

4.  The  Jises  to  which  ivory  is  put  are 
various.  It  is  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  ornamental  articles,  mathematical 
instruments,  cases,  boxes,  balls,  combs,  dice, 
and  a  variety  of  toys. 


1.  What  can  you  say  of  ivory  ?  2.  Whence  is 
ivory  usually  brought  to  us  ?  3.  Into  what  is  ivory 
dividea,  among  wholesale  dealers?    4.  To  what 


TORTOISE  SHELL. 

5.  There  are  two  general  kinds  of  tor- 
toises, namely,  the  land  and  sea  tortoise. 
It  is  a  species  of  the  latter  class,  and  a 
native  of  the  tropical  seas,  which  furnishes 
the  beautiful  shell  so  much  admired.  This 
shell  is  used  in  inlaying,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  combs,  boxes,  and  a  great  va- 
riety of  other  articles. 

6.  The  best  tortoise-shell  is  obtained  on 
the  shores  of  the  Spice  Islands  and  New 
Guinea,  although  much  of  it  is  brought 
from  the  West  Indies.  The  goodness  of 
tortoise-shell  depends  mainly  on  the  thick- 
ness and  size  of  the  scales,  and  in  a  smaller 
degree  on  ^le  clearness  and  brilliancy  of 
the  colors. 

HORN. 

7.  Horn  is  a  hard  substance,  growing 
on  the  heads  of  animals,  particularly  the 
cloven-footed  quadrupeds.  When  in  thin 
plates,  horn  is  quite  transparent,  and  has 
sometimes  been  substituted  for  glass  in 
windows.  When  heated  sufficiently,  it 
becomes  very  soft  and  flexible,  so  that  its 
shape  may  be  easily  altered.  Hence  it 
may  be  gradually  squeezed  into  a  mould 
and  wrought  into  various  forms. 

8.  Horns  make  a  considerable  article 
in  the  arts  and  manufactures.  Bullocks' 
horns,  softened  by  the  fire,  serve  to  make 
lanterns,  combs,  handles  for  knives,  and 
numerous  other  useful  things.  Horns  ma;' 
be  died  of  various  colors,  and  stained  by 
sort  of  paste,  so  as  to  bear  o  great  resem- 
blance to  tortoise-shell. 

COMBS. 

9.  Combs  are  generally  made  of  horns 
of  bullocks,  of  tortoise-shell,  or  of  ivory. 
Some  are  made  of  sea  horses'  teeth,  and 
others  of  box  or  holly  woods. 

10.  Bullocks'  horns  are  thus  prepared 
for  the  manufacture  of  combs.     The  tips 


uses  is  ivory  put  ?  5.  What  of  tortoise  shell  ? 
6.  Whence  is  the  best  obtained?  7.  What  is 
horn  ?    8.  For  what  is  it  used  ?    9.  Of  what  are 


62 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


are  first  sawed  off;  they  are  then  held  in 
the  flame  of  a  wood  fire  ;  this  is  called 
roasting,  by  which  they  become  nearly  as 
soft  as  leather.  While  in  this  state  they 
are  slit  open  on  one  side,  and  pressed  in  a 
machine  between  two  iron  plates.  They 
are  then  plunged  into  some  water,  from 
which  they  are  taken  out  hard  and  flat. 
The  comb-maker  next  saws  them  into 
lengths  according  to  the  sized  combs  he 
wants.  To  cut  the  teeth,  each  piece  is 
fixed  in  a  tool  called  a  clam.  The  teeth 
are  cut  with  a  fine  saw,  or  rather  a  pair 
of  saws,  and  they  are  finished  with  a  file. 

11.  The  process  used  for  making  ivory 
combs  is  nearly  the  same  as  ttiat  already 
described,  except  that  the  ivory  is  first 
sawed  into  thin  slices. 

JEWELRY. 

12.  Jewelry,  properly  speaking,  is  the 
preparing  of  jewels;  but  as  they  require 
gold  and  silver  for  setting,  so  all  orna- 
mental work  in  silver  and  gold  has  the 
name  of  jewelry,  although  there  may  be  no 
use  made  of  precious  stones. 

WATCHES. 

13.  The  making  of  watches  is  often,  a 
considerable  part  of  a  jeweller's  business. 
The  town  of  Geneva  in  Switzerland  is 
very  celebrated  for  this  manufacture,  but 
it  is  extensive  all  over  Europe.  The  Le- 
pine  watches  of  Paris,  made  by  one  firm 
in  that  city,  are  quite  famous.  Many  thou- 
sands of  them  are  annually  sold. 

14.  A  striking  watch  is  one  which  be- 
sides the  common  watch-work  for  measur- 
ing time,  has  a  clock  part  for  striking  the 
hours,  so  that,  properly  speaking,  it  is  a 
pocket-clock. 

15.  A  repeating  watch  is  one  that  by 
only  pulling  a  string,  touching  a  spring, 
&c.,  repeats  the  hour,  half-hour,  or  quar- 
ter, at  any  time  of  the  day  or  night. 


combs  generally  made?  10.  11.  How  are  the 
horns  prepared  ?  12.  What  is  meant  by  jewelry  ? 
13.  What  of  watches  ?    14.  A  striking  watch  ? 


CLOCKS. 

16.  The  measuring  of  time  with  wheel - 
work  was  not  known  in  ancient  times. 
We  owe  the  invention  of  clocks  to  the 
monks  of  the  middle  ages.  In  the  12th 
century,  clocks  were  made  use  of  in  the 
monasteries,  to  announce  the  end  of  every 
hour  by  the  sound  of  a  bell,  put  in  mo- 
tion by  means  of  wheels.  From  this  time 
forward,  the  expression  "the  clock  has 
struck"  is  often  met  with.  The  elegant 
Parisian  pendulum-clocks  are  well  known, 
in  which  the  art  of  the  sculptor  is  com- 
bined with  that  of  the  machinist. 

17.  Wooden  clocks  are  made  in  great 
quantities  in  a  part  of  South  Germany 
called  the  Black  Forest.  It  is  said  that 
70,000  of  such  clocks  are  made  there  an- 
nually. Great  numbers  of  wooden  clocks 
are  also  made  in  Connecticut,  and  sold 
by  pedlars  through  different  parts  of  the 
country.  The  character  of  some  of  these 
itinerant  venders  has  often  brought  the  ar- 
ticle into  disrepute. 

MOSAICS,  &c. 

18.  It  would  be  useless  to  enumerate 
the  great  variety  of  articles,  which  are 
displayed  in  a  jeweller's  shop.  Some  of 
them  will  more  properly  come  under  our 
succeeding  chapter.  Rings,  ear-rings,  and 
breastpins  are  ornaments  too  familiar  to 
need  a  description.  Some  of  these  are 
inlaid  with  mosaic-work,  and  others  with 
precious  stones.  In  mosaic-work,  figures 
are  composed,  joined,  and  cemented  to- 
gether of  various  colored  stones,  or  glass 
imitations.  The  ancients  practised  this 
art  with  much  skill  and  exactness. 

AMBER. 

19.  This  is  a  transparent,  and  very  haid 
inflammable  substance,  of  a  bituminous 
taste,  very  fragrant  smell,  and  highly  elec- 
tric.    Its  natural  color  is  a  fine  pale  yel- 


15.  A  repeating  watch  ?  16.  Clocks  ?  17.  Wood- 
en clocks  ?  18.  What  of  mosaics  ?  19.  Amber ' 
20.  Coral  ?    21.  Where  is  coral  found  ?  22.  How 


PEARLS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 


68 


low,  but  it  is  often  made  white  and  some- 
times black.  Amber  is  principally  to  be 
met  with  on  the  sea-coasts  of  Prussia. 
The  river  Giaretta  in  Sicily,  which  takes 
its  rise  on  the  north  side  of  Mount  Etna, 
throws  up  near  its  mouth  great  quantities  of 
fine  amber.  Some  pieces  contain  flies  and 
other  insects  curiously  preserved.  Amber 
is  sometimes  used  in  medicine,  but  it  is 
chiefly  manufactured  into  beads,  crosses, 
and  other  ornaments. 

CORAL. 

20.  Coral  is  a  marine  production,  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties.  It  is  in 
fact  the  nest  of  a  certain  species  of  insects, 
which  has  the  same  relation  to  coral,  that 
a  snail  has  to  its  shell.  The  white  coral  is 
the  most  common,  and  the  least  prized. 
As  an  ornament,  black  coral  is  most  es- 
teemed ;  but  the  red  is  also  quite  valuable. 

21.  Coral  is  found  in  great  abundance 
in  the  Red  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  in  vari- 
ous places  in  the  Mediterranean,  on  the 
coast  of  Sumatra,  &c.  The  red  coral, 
most  in  use  among  us,  is  fished  up  in  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  coast  of  France. 
This  is  used  principally  in  making  beads 
for  necklaces  and  other  ornamental  ap- 
pendages. 

22.  It  is  obtained  in  the  following  man- 
ner. The  boats  go  out  with  seven  men 
in  each  ;  six  of  them  manage  the  boat,  and 
the  seventh  is  the  fisher.     They  let  down 

.a  large  cross  of  wood,  furnished  with 
hempen  loops,  and  hooks ;  when  it  seems 
to  be  sufficiently  entangled  among  the 
coral-beds,  the  boatmen  row  away,  and 
endeavor  to  tear  it  up.  Sometimes  it  is 
more  than  one  boatful  of  men  can  do  ; 
five  or  six  boats  must  join.  And  some- 
times, when  the  coral  snaps  unexpectedly, 
the  jerk  oversets  the  boat,  and  precipitates 
the  men  into  the  sea,  at  the  hazard  of  their 
lives. 


.8  it  obtained  ?  23.  What  is  said  of  the  formation 
of  some  of  the  South  Sea  Islands ' 


23.  Although  the  insects,  which  pro- 
duce coral,  seem  too  diminutive  to  be  of 
any  importance,  yet  they  are  effecting  re- 
sults of  startling  magnitude  in  the  South 
Seas.  Almost  all  the  islands  there  are  the 
tops  of  coral  reefs,  which  have  been  raised 
by  these  little  creatures.  The  growing 
mass  as  it  spreads  its  branches  outwards, 
becomes  hard,  and  uninhabitable  in  its 
inner  recesses.  In  the  course  of  time, 
these  coral  rocks  rise  above  the  water,  and 
grow  no  higher,  for  the  animal  cannot  live 
out  of  the  sea.  Weeds,  branches  and  sea 
plants  then  help  to  form  the  remainder  of 
the  island. 

CHAP.  XX. 

PEARLS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

PEARLS. 

1.  Pearls  are  hard,  white,  shining  bodies, 
usually  round,  obtained  from  various  kinds 
of  shellfish.  Although  highly  valued  in  the 
rank  of  gems,  pearls  are  supposed  to  pro- 
ceed only  from  a  distemper  in  the  creature 
that  produces  them. 

2.  The  pearl  fisheries  in  Europe  are 
not  of  much  importance.  Pearls  are 
found  occasionally  on  the  coasts  of  Scot- 
land, Bohemia,  Bavaria,  and  a  few  other 
places.  These  are  not  prized  like  the 
Oriental  pearls,  though  they  make  good 
necklaces,  even  to  the  value  of  a  thousand 
crowns. 

3.  In  America  there  are  pearl  fishe- 
ries, in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  all  along 
the  coast  towards  Brazil.  The  island  of 
Margarita  has  its  name  on  this  account ; 
Margarita  signifying  a  pearly  through  the 
languages  of  the  Latins,  Greeks,  upwarda 
to  the  Hebrews.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
isthmus  of  Darien  also,  at  the  Gallipagoa 
Isles,  the  fishery  is  considerable. 

4.  But  as  the  finest  and  most  valuable 


1.  What  of  pearls?    2.  The  pearl-fisheries  of 
Europe  ?    3.  America?    4.  Whence  are  the  most 


64 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


pearls  come  from  India,  it  is  most  to  our 
purpose  to  describe  that  fishery  which 
takes  place  on  the  coast  of  Ceylon.  Al- 
though, on  the  Arabian  coast,  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Ormuz,  many  are  obtained. 

5.  Ceylon  is  a  large  island  in  the  Indian 
ocean,  adjacent  to  the  southern  point  of 
Hindoostan.  The  banks  where  the  fish 
abound,  lie  about  twenty  miles  off  at  sea, 
opposite  the  Bay  of  Condatchy.  The  gov- 
ernment does  not  allow  the  whole  bank  to 
be  fished  in  any  one  season ;  it  is  divided 
into  four  portions,  one  of  which  suflices 
for  a  year ;  thus,  as  the  fishers  make  pro- 
gress through  the  whole,  each  bank  obtains 
time  to  recover  the  devastations  made  in 
it.  The  right  of  fishing  this  bank  is  put 
up  to  sale,  and  is  usually  bought  by  some 
black  merchants. 

6.  The  fishing  begins  in  February,  and 
is  continued  through  the  month  of  March. 
In  stormy  days  the  divers  cannot  proceed. 
The  boats  set  off  at  the  signal  of  a  gun, 
about  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening,  when  the 
land  breeze  is  in  their  favor ;  they  reach 
the  banks  about  break  of  day  ;  and  about 
noon  the  sea  breeze  rises,  with  which  they 
return  to  land. 

7.  Each  boat  carries  about  twenty  men ; 
half  of  whom  are  to  row,  and  assist  the  di- 
vers, especially  in  ""oming  up,  when  they 
are  considerably  exhausted.  Of  the  other 
ten,  who  are  divers,  five  go  dtown  at  a 
time  ;  one  company  resting,  while  the  oth- 
er dives.  They  have  a  large  stone  tied  to 
their  foot,  of  forty  or  fifty  pounds'  weight, 
to  enable  them  to  sink ;  this  has  a  line 
fastened  to  it,  that  it  may  be  drawn  up, 
and  serve  again. 

8.  The  diver,  when  about  to  descend, 
seizes  the  rope  between  the  toes  of  his 
right  foot,  for  by  custom  he  can  use  his 
toes  as  well  as  his  fingers  ;  and  he  holds  a 

valuable  pearls  brought  r*  5.  Where  is  Ceylon  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  banks  where  the  fish  abound  ? 
5.  W^hen  does  the  fishing  begin  ?    7.  How  is  it 


bag  of  net  with  his  left  foot.  He  taker 
hold  of  another  rope  with  his  right  handj 
and  holds  his  nostrils  with  his  left.  He 
then  plunges  into  the  spa,  holding  his 
breath ;  he  hangs  the  net  round  his  neck, 
and,  as  quickly  as  possible,  fills  it  with  aa 
many  oysters  as  he  can  gather  up  in  about 
two  minutes.  By  jerking  the  rope,  he 
gives  notice  to  those  above  to  draw  him 
up ;  and  loosing  the  stone  from  his  foot, 
he  rises  quickly  into  the  air.  They  sel- 
dom get  deeper  than  thirty  yards,  which 
is  indeed  a  great  depth. 

9.  When  in  the  boat  again,  the  violence 
of  the  operation  appears,  by  his  discharg 
ing  water,  and  sometimes  blood,  from  his 
mouth,  ears,  and  nose.  He  then  rests, 
while  the  other  five  descend.  Each  man 
will  thus  go  to  the  bottom  forty  or  fifty 
times  in  one  day,  bringing  up  possibly  a 
hundred  oysters  at  every  turn.  They  are 
the  poorest  wretches  who  labor  in  this 
dangerous  way ;  they  live  but  a  few  years, 
for  they  are  liable  to  the  bursting  of 
blood  vessels,  drowning,  being  devoured  by 
sharks,  or  death  from  deep  consumption. 

10.  When  the  boats  return  to  land,  the 
oysters  are  heaped  in  pits,  lined  with  mats, 
to  prevent  the  oysters  from  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  earth  itself.  They  could  not 
be  opened  while  alive  without  great  force  ; 
but  when  they  begin  to  putrify  they  open, 
and  are  taken  out  without  injury. 

11.  The  formation  of  these  beautiful 
gems  of  the  ocean,  is  among  the  wonders 
of  nature.  The  oyster  itself  lines  its  own 
shell  with  a  pearly  matter,  oozing  froik 
glands  in  its  body,  provided  for  this  pur- 
pose. Perhaps  this  liquor  may  be  gener- 
ated in  too  great  quantity,  and  may  bursr 
in  drops,  into  the  cavity  of  the  shell. 
There  is  reason  too  to  think,  that  the  crea- 
ture is  sometimes  wounded,  and  that  this 


continued  ?  8  How  does  the  diver  obtain  the 
pearls  ?  9.  Is  the  occupation  a  dangerous  one  ? 
10.  What  is  done  with  the  oysters?    11.  What  it 


PEARLS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 


matter  flows  from  the  wound  ;  especially, 
as  smooth  and  perfect  shells  are  not  so 
likely  to  have  pearls  in  them  as  those 
which  are  deformed  and  distorted,  or 
crooked. 

12.  Pearls  should  be  of  a  clear  white, 
and  highly  glistening;  this  lustre  is  called 
their  water.  In  the  East,  those  which  are 
tinged  with  a  little  yellow  are  preferred  ; 
especially  as  they  are  thought  never  to 
change  their  color.  The  white  are  apt  to 
degenerate  to  a  very  dingy  yellow,  after 
forty  or  fifty  years'  wearing. 

13.  The  black  natives  paint  them  with 
powder  of  pearls ;  and  drill  them  with 
great  dexterity,  that  they  may  be  strung 
ready  for  use. 

14.  Pearls  are  valued  according  to  the 
square  of  their  weight.  If  a  pearl  of  one 
carat  be  worth  ten  shillings,  a  pearl  of  six 
carats  will  be  worth  thirty-six  times  as 
much,  or  eighteen  pounds ;  for  the  square 
of  six,  that  is  the  number  multiplied  by  it- 
self, is  thirty-six. 

15.  The  ignorant  are  often  deceived  by 
buying,  as  genuine  productions  of  nature, 
articles  which  are  mere  fabrications,  or  ar- 
tificial pearls.  Some  pretend  to  unite  sev- 
eral small  pearls  into  one  large  one,  which 
is  impossible.  From  the  scales  of  some 
fish  a  silvery  matter  may  be  obtained  ;  this 
is  dropped  into  a  hollow  bead  of  very  thin 
glass ;  and  the  appearance  is  so  nearly  that 
of  the  real  pearl,  that  none  but  a  practised 
eye  can  distinguish  the  difference.  Nay, 
a  thin  skin  from  the  eye  of  the  mackerel, 
may  be  stamped  into  a  half-globular  shape, 
which,  when  set,  will  deceive  the  careless 
and  inattentive,  into  the  conceit  of  a  great 
bargain. 

16.  Seeing  the  dangers  of  ihe  pearl  fish- 
ery are  so  great,  one  may  be  allowed  to 
wish,  that  the  better  sort  of  artificial  pearls 


said  of  the  formation  of  the  pearls?     12,  How 
should  pearls  be  ?    13.  The  black  natives — ?    14. 
How  are  pearls  valued?     15.  What  of  artificial 
5 


might  content  our  fair  ladies ;  as  the  whit- 
est of  the  real  pearls,  morally  viewed,  are 
stained  with  blood. 

MOTHER  OF  PEARL. 

17.  What  is  called  mother  of  pearl,  is 
the  inner  lining  of  a  shell,  not  of  the  pearl- 
oyster,  but  of  another  species ;  this  is  of 
the  same  substance  as  the  pearl.  It  is 
very  beautiful,  and  is  made  up  into  many 
trinkets,  or  used  with  great  advantage 
to  inlay  the  nicer  sorts  of  cabinet-work. 
Fishes  and  counters,  for  card-players,  are 
formed  of  it.  Its  neat  and  beautiful  ap- 
pearance makes  it  suitable  for  various 
small  ornaments.  The  principal  manufac- 
ture of  this  material  is  in  Jerusalem ;  vast 
quantities  of  it  are  brought  thither  from 
the  Red  Sea;  it  is  formed  into  wafer- 
boxes,  crucifixes,  &c.,  which,  when  ex- 
ported to  the  Spanish  West  Indies,  are 
highly  prized,  and  bring  an  immense  profit. 
There  is  also  a  manufactory  of  Pearl  work, 
as  it  is  called  at  Boston,  which  has  sup- 
plied the  United  States  with  most  of  these 
articles  for  two  or  three  years. 

DIAMONDS. 

18.  The  diamond  is  a  most  precious 
stone,  which  has  been  known  from  the  re- 
motest ages.  When  pure,  it  is  perfectly 
transparent  like  crystal,  but  much  more 
brilliant.  Indeed,  it  has  been  said  that  the 
excellency  of  a  diamond  is  greatest,  when 
you  cannot  see  it.  For,  if  you  consider  a 
little,  it  is  not  the  diamond  itself  that  you 
see,  but  the  light  reflected  by  it. 

19.  T\\Q  first  ivater  in  diamonds,  means 
the  greatest  purity  and  perfection  of  their 
complexion,  which  should  be  that  of  the 
purest  water.  When  diamonds  fall  short 
of  this  perfection,  they  are  said  to  be  of 
the  second  or  third  water  &c.  If  you  were 
to  see  a  diamond  in  its  rough  state,  before 
it  is  polished,  you  would  not  suspect  it  to 


pearls  ?  16.  Viewing'  the  pearl-fishery  in  a  moral 
point  of  view,  what  is  the  conclusion  ?  17.  What 
of  mother  of  pearl  ?    18.  What  of  the  diamond? 


66 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


be  any  thing  but  a  common  stone ;  unless 
you  were  accustomed  to  it.  When  un- 
polished, diamonds  have  a  whitish-gray 
appearance,  and  are  destitute  of  brilliancy. 

20.  A  poor  woman  at  Norwich,  in  Eng- 
land, once  had  a  Jew  rap  at  her  door,  to 
ask  her  if  she  would  part  with  a  stone, 
which  lay  in  her  window.  She  said,  No, 
it  was  a  keepsake  from  her  son  Ben,  who 
was  gone  to  the  Indies.  The  Jew,  instead 
of  being  daunted,  was  stimulated,  by  this 
account,  and  said  he  had  taken  a  fancy  to 
it,  and  would  give  her  a  crown  for  it. 
The  woman  was  shrewd  enough  to  know, 
that  a  Jew  would  not  give  five  shillings 
for  any  thing  unless  it  were  worth  a  great 
deal  more.  She  therefore  refused  to  part 
with  it  obstinately,  till  she  had  found  out 
what  it  was,  and  what  was  its  real  value. 
In  the  sequel,  it  was  discovered  that  tliis 
stone  was  a  very  large  diamond,  in  its 
rough  state,  for  which  she  procured  a 
thousand  guineas  or  about  fixe  thousand 
dollars ;  after  it  had  thus  lain  in  her  win- 
dow for  years,  as  a  connnon  stone. 

21.  I  can  tell  you  another  story  too, 
which  may  serve  to  make  you  careful,  in 
things  which  might  not  at  the  time  seem 
to  be  of  any  importance.  Some  fifty  years 
ago,  an  East-Indiaman  was  wrecked  near 
Aldborough,  on  the  coast  of  England.  A 
few  weeks  afterwards,  some  gentlemen 
<*ame  down  in  a  post-chaise,  inquiring  for 
any  remnants  of  the  wreck;  especially  for 
some  small,  but  strong,  boxes.  At  last, 
they  found  a  laboring  man  had  got  one  of 
the  boxes,  which  they  might  have  if  they 
liked.  It  had  taken  him,  he  said,  a  plaguy 
deal  of  time  to  break  it  open,  and  when  he 
had  done  so,  there  was  nothing  in  it  but  a 
parcel  of  ugly  stones.  The  gentlemen 
eagerly  inquired  what  he  had  done  with 
them.     Oh,  he  said,  they  were  good  for 

19.  What  is  meant  by  the  first  tcater  in  diamonds? 

20.  Relate  the  story  of  the  poor  woman  and  the 
Jew.    21 .  22.  What  is  the  other  story  t  23.  What 


nothing,  and  he  had  hulled  them  away  into 
the  field. 

22.  They  made  him  point  to  the  place 
as  nearly  as  he  could,  and  were  at  the  ex- 
pense of  having  the  whole  field  sifted  and 
searched,  but  almost  to  no  purpose ;  as 
very  few  of  the  diamonds  (for  such  were 
these  stones  in  reality)  were  recovered. 
Had  he  been  a  little  wiser,  iie  would  have 
supposed,  that  those  could  not  be  common 
stones  which  were  packed  up  so  carefully, 
in  strong  iron-bound  boxes.  As  it  was^  •* 
he  had  the  punishment  of  knowing,  that 
he  had  thus  missed  of  a  handsome  reward 
through  his  ignorance,  and  his  want  of 
common  honesty,  which  ought  to  have  in- 
duced him  to  wait  to  see  if  any  one  came 

to  claim  the  boxes. 

23.  The  diamond  has  always  been  in 
request,  from  its  scarcity,  as  well  as  its 
beauty.  The  ancients  called  it  adamant ; 
which  word  is  still  in  use  to  express  any 
thing  extremely  hard.  The  diamond  is 
the  hardest  substance  in  nature ;  nothing 
but  itself  can  cut  it. 

24.  To  get  the  diamond  into  a  proper 
shape  for  showing  its  brilliancy  to  advan- 
tage, the  lapidary  rubs  two  of  them  to- 
gether, and  they  wear  away  each  other. 
The  very  dust  so  made  is  also  carefully 
saved,  as  nothing  else  will  polish  this  ex- 
cessively hard  stone. 

25.  There  is  a  diamond  mill  at  Amster- 
dam, which  is  an  interesting  object.  The 
process  of  polishing  the  diamonds  is  as  fol- 
lows: Four  horses  turn  a  wheel,  setting  in 
motion,  in  the  room  above,  a  number  of 
smaller  wheels,  whose  cogs,  acting  on  cir- 
cular metal  plates,  keep  them  in  continued 
revolution.  Pulverized  diamond  is  placed 
on  these ;  and  the  stone  to  be  polished, 
being  fiistened  at  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
wood  by  means  of  a  preparation  of  zinc 


name  did  the  ancients  give  to  the  diamond  ?  24. 
How  are  diamonds  shaped.?  25.  Describe  the 
diamond  mill  at  Amsterdam.    26.  What  country 


PEARLS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 


67 


find  quicksilver,  is  submitted  to  the  fric- 
tion of  the  adamantine  particles.  This 
is  the  onl}'  mode  of  acting  on  diamond ; 
which  can  be  ground,  and  even  cut  by 
particles  of  the  same  substance.  In  the 
latter  operation,  diamond  dust  is  fixed  on 
a  metal  wire  that  is  moved  rapidly  back- 
wards and  forwards  over  the  stone  to  be 
cut.  The  distinction  between  a  rose  dia- 
mond and  a  brilliant,  is  this.  The  one  is 
ontire  and  set  vertically,  the  other  is  di- 
vided, and  set  horizontally.  The  largest 
diamonds  are  reserved  for  roses,  which 
always  rise  in  the  centre  to  an  angle  ;  the 
smaller  are  used  as  brilliants,  and  are  flat 
on  the  upper  surface. 

'  26.  The  main  source  of  supply,  for 
ages,  has  been  the  East  Indies.  There 
we  still  find  four  principal  mines,  or  rather 
two  mines  in  which  they  are  digged,  and 
two  rivers,  by  which  the  diamonds  are 
washed  down  from  the  bowels  of  the 
mountains. 

27.  In  Golconda  on  the  Eastern  coast 
of  Hindostan,  it  is  common  for  the  mer- 
chants, who  are  often  blacks,  to  buy  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  land,  in  which  their  slaves 
dig  for  diamonds.  Sometimes  they  find 
nothing ;  at  other  times  they  obtain  great 
wealth  in  a  single  season. 

28.  The  diamond  mine  at  Raolconda, 
in  this  province,  has  been  resorted  to  for 
this  purpose  full  two  hundred  years.  The 
soil  is  sandy,  and  the  rocks  are  full  of 
clefts.  In  these  clefts,  though  not  above 
an  inch  wide,  the  miners  search  with 
hooked  tools,  dragging  the  sand  all  out. 
This  they  wash  carefully,  to  search  for  the 
stones.  The  people  work  naked,  (except 
one  narrow  piece  of  cloth.)  that  they  may 
not  be  able  to  secrete  any  for  themselves. 
They  do,  however,  now  and  then  succeed 
in  swallowing  some,  and  thus  bring  them 
nway  without  being  discovered. 


has  furnished  the  chief  supply  of  diamonds  ?    27. 
In  Golconda-   ?    28.  What  of  the  diamond-mine 


29.  There  is  another  mine  at  Gaui,  also 
in  the  province  of  Golconda.  This  was 
discovered  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  years 
since,  by  a  peasant,  who,  in  digging,  found 
a  large  one.  Here  the  Great  Mogul's  fa- 
mous diamond  was  found,  weighing  almost 
eight  hundred  carats ;  in  general,  they  do 
not  weigh  above  ten  or  twenty.  A  carat 
is  a  weight  used  only  for  gold,  diamonds, 
pearls,  and  similar  precious  commodities; 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  carats  make 
an  ounce,  in  the  troy  weight. 

30.  In  this  mine  there  are  often  sixty 
thousand  poor  wretches  obliged  to  dig. 
The  manner  is  thus  :  near  the  place  where 
they  hope  to  find  diamonds,  they  dig  a  pit, 
which  they  enclose  with  low  walls ;  they 
then  dig  in  the  spot  they  have  chosen,  till 
they  find  water;  and  they  stir  up  the  earth 
well  with  this  water,  which  is  afterwards 
let  off.  What  the  men  have  dug  and 
washed,  is  carried  by  the  women  and 
children  into  the  first  pit ;  there  they  wash 
the  earth  they  have  obtained,  and  dry  it, 
and  sift  it;  and  then  adroitly  search  with 
their  hands  for  the  diamonds,  which  they 
learn  to  know  by  the  feel.  This  mine  is 
on  a  plain,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains ; 
the  nearer  the  mountains  they  can  dig,  the 
larger  are  the  diamonds  they  find.  All 
this  work,  laborious  as  it  is,  is  made  a  kind 
of  holyday,  by  the  feast  given  previously, 
and  the  superstitious  rites  and  sacrifices, 
supposed  to  make  the  genii  of  the  place 
propitious  to  them. 

31.  The  river  Goual  runs  into  the  Gan- 
ges, in  the  northern  part  of  India.  After 
the  great  rains,  which  have  flooded  all  the 
country,  have  subsided,  the  natives  of  the 
neighborhood,  to  the  number  of  ten  thou- 
sand, assemble;  they  gather  up  the  sands 
of  the  river,  digging  it  about  two  feet  deep, 
where,  by  experience,  they  see  reason  to 
expect    diamonds.     This   they  wash   dry, 


at  Raolconda  ?    29.   Gani  ?    What  is   a  carat '' 
30.  What  is  the  manner  of  digging?    31.  Whati* 


63 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE. 


sift,  and  search,  as  before.  The  stones 
they  thus  obtain  are  small,  and  are  called 
sparks. 

32.  There  is  another  diamond-mine  in 
a  river,  in  the  island  of  Borneo.  This  is 
secluded  from  strangers,  so  that  we  know 
little  about  it ;  except  that  by  stealth,  dia- 
monds are  brought  from  thence  and  sold 
at  Batavia. 

33.  Diamonds  are  also  found  near  Villa 
Rica  and  in  other  parts  of  Brazil.  They 
are  so  plentiful,  that  to  prevent  the  price 
of  diamonds  from  becoming  too  low,  the 
government  limits  the  number  of  persons 
employed  in  the  mines.  The  sand  is 
washed  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar  to 


that  described  above.  After  the  current 
flows  away  quite  clear,  the  largest  stones 
are  thrown  out  and  then  those  of  inferior 
size:  then  the  whole  is  examined  with 
great  care  for  diamonds. 

34.  The  value  of  diamonds  is  artificial, 
yet,  while  they  are  in  request,  and  can  be 
turred  into  money,  the  value  is  truly  real. 
But  the  usual  mode  of  valuation  makes  the 
(arger  sort  rise  in  price,  much  beyond  their 
increase  in  size  and  weight;  till,  for  some 
few,  the  valuation  is  enormous. 

35.  The  largest  diamond  on  record  was 
found  in  Brazil.  An  ignorant  man,  by  a 
violent  blow  of  a  hammer,  split  off  a  large 
piece ;    but  it    now  weighs   one  thousand 


said  of  the  river  Goual  ?    32.  The  diamond-mine 
ef  Borneo?    33.  Brazil  diamonds  ^   34.  The  value 


six  hundred  and  eighty  carats.  It  how 
ever  remains  uncut,  because  the  cost  of 
polishing  it  would  be  so  great. 

36.  The    Emperor  of  Russia  has  one 
next  in  size,  which  may  well  be  esteemed 
a  famous  one.     It  was  once  the  eye  of  ar 
idol,  in  the   East  Indies.     A  French  sol- 
dier, who  deserted  his  regiment,  contrivetf 
to  become  a  priest  to  this  idol,  and  took 
his  opportunity  to  steal  the  idol's  eye  ou< 
of  its  socket !    He  then  escaped  to  Madras 
where  he  sold  it  to  a  sea-captain,  for  twen  • 
ty  thousand  rupees,  or  about  two  thousanc 
pounds.     A  Jew  then  purchased  it  for  sev 
enteen  thousand  guineas.     A  Greek  mer 
chant  obtained  it  next ;  who  sold  it  at  Am 
sterdam,  to  Prince  OrlofF,  through  whom 
it  came  to    the  Empress    Catherine,  who 
placed  it  in  her  sceptre.      It  weighs  seven 
hundred  and  seventy-nine  carats.     It  cost 
above  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  thousand 
pounds,  and  is  valued  at  four  millions. 

37.  To  ascertain  whether  any  specimen 
is  a  true  diamond  or  not,  a  fine  file  may 
be  used  ;  and  if  the  surface  of  the  stone 
be  the  least  scratched  by  its  action,  it  is 
not  a  diamond.  Brazil  now  furnishes  the 
greatest  number  of  diamonds  to  the  world. 

CORNELIAN. 

38.  The  cornelian  is  a  precious  stone, 
of  which  there  are  three  kinds,  a  red,  a 
yellow  and  a  white.  It  is  found  in  round 
or  oval  lumps,  much  like  our  common 
pebbles.  It  is  tolerably  hard,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  a  very  fine  polish.  It  is  used 
principally  by  jewellers  in  the  manufacture 
of  beads,  watch-seals,  &c.  The  finest  cor- 
nelians are  those  of  the  East  Indies ;  but 
very  good  ones  are  found  in  some  parts 
of  Germany  as  well  as  of  Great  Britain. 

EMERALD. 

39.  Emerald  is  a  precious  stone  of  a 
beautiful  green  color  of  various  depths. 
The  purest  specimens  come  from  the  East 


of  diamonds  .'    35.  What  is  the  largest  diamond 
on  record .?    36.  Who  has  the  one  next  in  size .' 


PEARLS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 


69 


Indies  and  Peru.  It  is  of  different  sizes, 
but  usually  small.  Crystal  tinged  with 
green  is  very  often  substituted  for  the  in- 
ferior sort  of  emeralds. 

JASPER. 

40.  This  stone,  which  is  usually  found 
in  the  East  Indies  and  China,  is  an  ingre- 
dient in  the  composition  of  many  moun- 
tains. Its  colors  are  various,  and  often 
mingled  together.  It  is  mostly  employed 
by  jewellers  in  the  formation  of  seals,  and 
when  well  polished  is  a  very  beautiful 
istone. 

RUBY. 

41.  The  ruby  is  a  precious  stone  very 
highly  esteemed  when  pure.  But  under  this 
name  minerals  have  sometimes  been  sold, 
which  are  essentially  different.  The  ori- 
ental ruby  is,  in  fact,  a  red  variety  of  the 
sapphire.  When  perfect,  its  color  is  a 
deep  red,  presenting  an  exquisite  richness 
of  hue.  It  is,  however,  in  general,  more 
or  less  pale,  and  often  mixed  with  blue. 
It  is  harder  than  any  mineral,  except  the 
diamond.  Rubies  are  found  in  Pegu,  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  and  Brazil. 

SAPPHIRE. 

42.  Sapphire  is  a  precious  stone,  usu- 
ally of  a  blue  color,  and  the  hardest  of 
all,  except  the  ruby  and  diamond.  It  is 
found  in  the  same  countries  with  the  ruby, 
and  also  in  Siberia  and  some  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. Sapphire  is  found  of  a  gray,  white, 
green  and  yellow  color,  and  usually  of  the 
form  of  common  pebbles. 

AMETHYST. 

43.  The  amethyst  is  a  gem  of  a  purple 
^olor,  and  is  scarcely  inferior  to  any  of  the 
gems  in  beauty  and  hardness.  It  is  found 
of  various  sizes,  and  the  best  come  from 
the  East  Indies.  It  is  also  met  with  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  different  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. 


38.  What  of  cornelian  ?    39.  Emerald  ?   40.  Jas- 
per ?  41.  Ruby.?    42.  Sapphire  .?   43.  Amethyst? 


TOPAZ. 

44.  The  word  topaz,  derived  from  an 
island  in  the  Red  Sea,  where  the  ancients 
used  to  find  topazes,  was  applied  by  them 
to  a  mineral  very  different  from  ours.  The 
topaz  is  found  in  several  parts  of  the  East 
Indies,  in  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  Peru  and  some 
parts  of  Europe.  The  colors  are  various, 
and  it  often  occurs,  red,  blue,  green,  yellow 
and  white. 

AGATES. 

45.  The  agate  is  a  gem,  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily,  on 
the  banks  of  which  it  is  found.  It  is  va- 
riegated with  veins  and  clouds,  and  seems 
to  be  composed  of  crystal,  colored  by  a 
large  quantity  of  earth.  Its  colors  are  yel- 
lowish, reddish,  bluish,  orange,  green,  &c. 
Agates  are  found  in  Great  Britain,  and 
many  parts  of  America.  The  German 
agates  are  the  largest.  Some  very  fine 
ones  have  been  brought  from  Siberia  and 
Ceylon.  They  are  found  in  great  plenty 
at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  settlement 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  are  still 
met  with  in  Italy. 

JET. 

46.  Jet  is  a  black,  inflammable  and  bitu- 
minous substance,  which  is  susceptible  of 
a  fine  polish.  It  occurs  in  France,  Spain 
and  many  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  is 
found  at  Soutli  Hadley,  in  Massachusetts, 
in  the  coal  formation.  Jet  is  chiefly  con- 
verted into  beads,  bracelets,  buttons,  and 
other  small  ornaments.  In  Prussia  it  is 
called  black  amber,  and  is  cut  into  rosaries 
and  necklaces. 

CHAP.  XXI. 

PRECIOUS  METALS. 

GOLD. 
1.  Gold  has  always  been  a  metal  highly 
prized ;    partly  for  its  scarcity,  partly  for 


44.  Topaz.?    45.  Agates.'   Whence  is  the  word 
Agates  derived .'  46.  What  of  jet .? 


to 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


its  brilliancy,  and  much  on  account  of  its 
durability.  It  is  not  liable  to  rust,  evapo- 
ration, or  to  any  destruction  of  its  essential 
substance.  If,  indeed,  any  metal  were  to 
be  prized  for  its  usefulness,  iron  would 
deserve  man's  highest  esteem.  Many  na- 
}  tions  have  been  happy  without  gold ;  but 
no  comforts  or  conveniences,  no  arts  or 
sciences,  could  be  attained,  or  prosecuted, 
without  iron. 

2.  We  read  of  gold  in  Scripture,  in  very 
«arly  days.  In  the  description  of  Paradise, 
one  of  the  four  rivers  flowing  out  of  it  en- 
compased,  we  are  told,  the  '  land  of  Havi- 
lah,  where  there  is  gold,'  [Genesis,  ii.  II.) 
A  chain  of  gold  was  put  upon  the  neck  of 
Joseph,  at  his  exaltation.  It  became  so 
plentiful,  and  was  esteemed  so  highly,  that 
Israel  in  the  wilderness  was  cautioned 
against  making  gods  of  gold,  to  worship 
them. 

iS.  Gold  seems  to  be  very  generally 
found,  though  Europe  has  been  less  favor- 
ed with  it  than  other  parts  of  the  earth. 
Asia  has  been  rich  in  this  precious  metal ; 
the  river  Pactolus,  in  Lydia,  yielded  much 
to  king  Croesus  ;  and  to  this  day  Sumatra, 
Pegu,  China,  and  Japan,  yield  considerable 
quantities.  In  Europe,  though  gold  mines 
have  been  found  in  many  places,  yet  the 
principal  one  now  worked  is  that  of  Chrem- 
nitz,  in  Hungary,  which  has  yielded  gold 
for  a  thousand  years.  Spain  once  afforded 
much  to  the  Romans ;  but  the  mines  are 
not  now  worth  working. 

4.  Africa  yields  gold  in  considerable 
quantities,  chiefly  in  small  grains,  called 
gold-dust.  In  Solomon's  time,  Ophir,  on 
the  eastern  coast,  was  famous  for  it.  But 
since  the  discovery  of  America,  the  great- 
est supply  has  been  obtained  from  thence  ; 
from  Mexico,  in  the  Northern  Continent ; 
and  from  Chile,  Peru,  and  Brazil,  in  South 
America  ;  and  more  recently  from  North 

1.  What  is  said  of  gold?  2.  Do  we  read  of  gold 
in  Scriptuie ''    3.  4.  In  what  countries  is  gold 


Carolina,  Georgia  and  other  parts  of  tha 
United  States. 

5.  Gold  is  sometimes  found  in  minea, 
but  it  must  be  digged  for.  It  is  also  found 
more  frequently  in  particular  rivers,  min 
gled  with  the  sands.  These  sands  are 
sifted  and  washed.  Those  employed  in 
searching  for  them,  have  a  long  trough^ 
which  they  place  sloping ;  this  is  lined  at 
the  bottom  with  flannel ;  and  the  sand  put 
into  this  is  well  mingled  with  water  and 
kept  stirring.  The  gold  by  its  weight 
sinks,  and  is  entangled  in  the  flannel ;  but 
the  water  and  sand  pass  away.  The  gold, 
thus  separated,  is  easily  melted  into  a  lump, 
or  ingot. 

6.  In  Guinea,  the  gold  is  chiefly  found 
in  the,  sand  and  mud  of  rivers.  Between 
two  and  three  thousand  ounces  of  gold- 
dust  annually  come  from  thence ;  and 
several  hundred  ounces  from  the  Gambia 
Much  is  brought  from  the  interior,  into 
Egypt,  in  this  form,  secured  in  the  hollows 
of  ostrich  quills. 

7.  In  the  streams  which  drain  from  the 
mountains  of  Chile,  a  peculiar  sort  of  gold 
is  found,  and  it  is  separated  from  the 
earth  in  which  it  is  imbedded  by  washing, 
at  places  called  lavaderos.  When  the  na- 
tives have  discovered  a  place  proper,  they 
dig  about  six  feet  deep ;  and  endeavor 
to  turn  some  rivulet  into  the  pit,  to  wash 
away  the  upper  soil,  and  lay  bare  the  stra- 
tum of  golden  earth.  They  then  dig,  load 
their  mules  with  the  earth,  and  carry  it 
to  be  washed. 

8.  In  Brazil,  the  invading  soldiery  of  the 
Spaniards  perceived  that  the  fish-hooks  of 
the  Indians  were  made  of  gold.  On  iif- 
quiring,  they  found  this  was  obtained  from 
the  sands  of  the  rivers,  after  violent  floods  ; 
since  then,  gold  has  been  sought  for  with 
great  care,  and  is  found  almost  in  every 
stream. 


found  ?    5.  How  is  it  obtained  ?    6.  Where  is  it 
found  in   Guinea  ?    7.  Chile  ?   8.  What  did  the 


PRECIOUS      METALS. 


71 


9.  Gold  found  in  mines  is  sometimes 
ia  small  lumps ;  seldom  any  piece  weighs 
more  than  an  ounce,  although  pieces  have 
been  found  of  thirty-six  ounces,  and  even 
of  several  pounds'  weight.  Some  pieces 
of  this  sort  were  sent  to  Spain,  by  Colum- 
bus, to  convince  the  court  of  the  treasm-es 
iikely  to  be  obtained  in  his  newly-discov- 
ered world. 

10.  In  other  places,  gold  is  found  in  a 
lort  of  stony  lump,  or  clods,  which  usually 
i'le  at  great  depths  in  the  mine.  These 
lumps  are  very  hard,  and  generally  con- 
tain silver,  or  some  other  metal,  mingled 
mth  the  gold.  The  precious  substance  is 
found  but  in  small  quantities ;  five  thou- 
sand pounds'  weight  of  the  mineral  yield- 
ing only  a  few  ounces  of  gold. 

11.  Native  gold  is  not  usually  found, 
except  deep  in  primitive  mountains,  and 
in  the  crevices  of  rocks. 

12.  The  obtaining  of  gold  from  the  ore, 
*s  a  troublesome  and  an  expensive  opera- 
tion. They  first  break  the  stone  with 
neavy  iron  mallets ;  then  they  grind  it  in 
a  mill,  and  sift  it  through  many  sieves, 
the  latter  sort  finer  than  those  used  at 
first.  This  fine  powder  is  soaked  in  salt 
and  water,  in  open  troughs.  They  then 
squeeze  among  it,  in  a  sort  of  dew,  some 
quicksilver,  which  having  an  amazing  af- 
finity for  gold,  seizes  on  it,  and  intermin- 
gles, or  amalgamates,  with  it  in  a  short 
time.  All  the  earthy  matter,  and  the  salt, 
are  easily  washed  away  with  hot  water ; 
so  that  nothing  remains  but  this  metallic 
mixture.  The  mercury  is  then  driven 
away  by  heat,  and  the  pure  or  virgin  gold 
remains.  It  is  then  melted,  and  cast  into 
ingots. 

13.  In  some  places,  they  lay  sheepskins, 
with  the  wool  on,  in  the  waters  where 
they  expect  to  find  gold ;  and  the  grains 


Spaniards  perceive  in  Brazil?  9.  10.  Is  gold  ever 
found  in  lumps?  11.  Native  gold — ?  12.  How  is 
gold  obtained  from  the  ore  ?  13.  In  some  places —  ? 


of  gold  are  entangled  in  the  wool,  while 
the  earthy  parts  are  washed  away. 

14.  The  gold  mines  in  the  United  States 
are  annually  proving  a  source  of  con- 
siderable profit  to  the  proprietors.  These 
mines  abound  chiefly  in  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia.  The  most  lucrative  diggings  ia 
North    Carolina   have  been    made  in  the 


counties  of  Mecklenburg  and  Cabarras. 
In  the  latter  county,  a  single  lump  of  gold 
was  found  weighing  twenty -eight  pounds. 
A  part  of  this  gold  is  sent  to  Europe  ;  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  it  is  coined  in 
this  country. 

15.  The  method  of  extending  gold  used 
by  the  gold-beaters,  consists  in  hammering 
a  number  of  thin  rolled  plates  between 
skins  or  animal  membranes.  It  may  be 
beaten  out  into  leaves  so  thin,  that  one 
grain  of  gold  will  cover  56  3-4  square 
inches.  An  ounce  of  gold  upon  silver  is 
capable  of  being  extended  more  than  1,300 
miles  in  length. 

SILVER. 

17.  Silver  is  a  metal  of  a  fine  white 
color,  without  either  taste  or  smell.  It 
was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  has 
for  ages  been  used  as  money.  It  may  be 
beaten  out  into  leaves  nearly  as  thin  as 
gold.  Its  ductility  is  very  remarkable  ;  it 
may  be  drawn  out  into  wire  much  finer 


14.  What  of  the  gold  mines  in  the  United  States  - 

15.  The  method  of  extending  gold  ?     16.  What 
of  silver?    17.  What  is  meant  by  native  silver  ? 


72 


BOOK    OF    COMME&CE. 


than  a  human  hair.  Its  tenacity  is  such  I 
that  a  very  slender  wire  is  capable  of  sup- 
porting a  heavy  weiglit.  Silver  is  much  I 
more  plentiful  than  gold,  and  it  is  a  more 
useful  though  less  precious  metal. 

17.  Silver  is  sometimes  found  nearly 
pure,  or  as  metal  ;  in  that  state  it  is  called 
native.  But  it  is  more  commonly  mingled 
with  other  substances,  especially  with  an- 
timony. It  is  purified  by  different  means, 
acording  to  the  nature  of  its  combina- 
tion. The  native  silver  is  amalgamated 
with  mercury,  which  is  afterwards  driven 
off,  and  the  silver  is  left  pure.  When 
mingled  with  antimony  or  sulphur,  the 
heating  of  it  will  drive  them  off,  in  fumes. 

18.  Norway  possesses  considerable  sil- 
ver mines,  especially  at  Kongsberg,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  kingdom.  Here  sil- 
ver is  found  in  greater  abundance,  and  in 
larger  masses,  than  in  any  other  spot  in 
Europe.  The  veins  of  ore  extend  to  a 
considerable  distance,  and  in  several  di- 
rections ;  so  that  new  mines  are  opened 
continually.  Out  of  one  of  these  some- 
times several  hundred  weights  of  rich 
ore  have  been  obtained  in  a  single  week. 
This  mine  sinks  perpendicularly  above  a 
thousand  feet,  having  a  very  large  width 
at  bottom. 


19.  Thirty,  or  more,  fires  are  seen  blaz- 
ing in  different  parts,  which  are  kindled  in 
order  to  soften  the  rock,  and  render  the 


working  of  it  more  easy.  These  fires,  in 
such  a  deep  pit,  with  swarms  of  miners, 
black  and  oddly  habited,  give  it  the  ap- 
pearance usually  ascribed  to  the  infernal 
regions.  The  similitude  is  aided  by  the 
general  cry,  when  they  are  about  to  blow 
up  a  part,  '  Take  care  of  your  lives.'  A 
few  years  ago,  four  thousand  persons 
found  employment  in  these  mines.  The 
ore  is  usually  obtained  in  lumps  of  a  few 
pounds'  weight ;  yet  one  m/iss  was  found 
worth  six  hundred  pounds  sterling ;  it  is 
in  the  king's  cabinet,  at  Copenhagen. 

20.  But  the  mines  most  famous,  because 
most  productive,  are  found  in  the  moun- 
tain of  Potosi,  one  of  the  high  ridges  of 
the  Andes.  The  discovery  of  a  mine  is 
frequently  owing  to  what  is  called  chance, 
and  the  account  of  it  usually  interests  us 
much.  On  this  principle,  the  history  of 
these  mines  may  be  given :  An  Indian, 
named  Hualpa,  pursuing  some  wild  goats, 
in  climbing  after  them,  laid  hold  of  a 
shrub  on  the  side  of  the  steep,  in  order  to 
assist  him.  The  shrub  gave  way,  and  to 
his  surprise,  discovered  to  his  view  a  mass 
of  silver. 

21.  This  he  secured,  washed,  and  ap- 
propriated to  his  own  benefit.      He  came 

i  again  and  again,  to  the  same  spot,  for 
more,  and  found  plenty.  A  friend  observ- 
ing him  to  grow  rich,  at  last  sifted  the 
secret"  from  him.  For  awhile  they  be- 
came partners  of  the  treasure  ;  but  the 
friend  was  not  able  to  refine  his  silver  fit 
for  use,  and  Hualpa,  thinking  he  had  re- 
vealed too  much  already,  refused  to  show 
him  the  process.  The  other  was  so  of- 
fended with  this  refusal,  that  he  went  and 
gave  information  of  the  mine ;  which  was 
then  seized  for  the  king's  use. 

22.  This  mountain  of  Potosi  may  be 
said  to  consist  of  a  mass  of  silver  ore. 
The  labors  of  man  for  three  hundred 
years,  have  hollowed  it  out,  almost  like  a 


18.  19.  What  of  the  silver  mines  of  Norway  ? }]  20.  21.  What  are  the  most  famous  silver  mines 


PRECIOUS    METALS. 


■^8 


honeycomb,  but  not  exhausted  it.  The 
mountain  resembles,  in  some  degree,  a 
BUgar-Ioaf  in  shape.  It  is  about  eighteen 
miles  in  circumference,  and  chiefly  com- 
posed of  an  argillaceous  slate,  full  of  irony 
quartz,  in  which  the  silver  ore  is  intermin- 
gled. Above  three  hundred  mines  or  pits 
have  been  wrought,  but  not  with  regular- 
ity ;  for  the  miners  leave  one  for  awhile, 
lo  seek  for  a  new  one,  in  hopes  of  finding 
nnore  sudden  wealth  ;  neither  have  they 
»roper  machinery  to  clear  off  the  water, 
ivhich  soon  rushes  in,  and  stops  their 
■)perations. 

23.  Their  ignorance  in  refining,  too, 
ivas  very  great ;  for  they  could  not  obtain 
10  much  silver  from  the  ore  as  might  have 
been  had  ;  and  what  they  did  obtain,  they 
got  at  an  expense  of  quicksilver,  which 
greatly  reduced  the  profits.  The  miners' 
tools  also  were  bad  ;  and  the  whole  pro- 
cess, from  first  to  last,  was  managed  with- 
out any  science,  in  a  clumsy  and  wasteful 
manner. 

24.  The  city  of  Potosi,  however,  which 
owes  its  origin  to  the  mines,  is  large 
and  splendid,  containing  many  noble  and 
wealthy  families.  About  thirty  or  forty 
thousand  dollars  are  produced  weekly  from 
these  mines,  although  they  have  been 
worked  for  so  many  years.  Six  thousand 
Indians  are  sent  every  six  months,  and 
compelled  to  dig  in  them.  Some  of  the 
inhabitants  of  this  city  are  said  to  be  so 
rich,  that  their  domestic  utensils,  their 
shovels,  tongs,  &c.  are  made  of  pure 
silver. 

25.  Between  Potosi  and  the  Southern 
Ocean,  large  lumps  of  silver  are  often 
found,  by  digging  in  the  sandy  soil.  Sev- 
eral years  ago,  a  new  mine  was  discovered 
at  a  distance  from  the  mountains,  and 
within  ten  miles  of  the  sea,  called  Huanta^ 


Mention  the  story  of  their  discovery.    22.  What 

of  the  mountain  of  Potosi  ?    23.  The  ignorance 

of  the  miners .-'   24.  The  city  of  Potosi  ?    25.  Are 

7  ^ 


jaya  ;  so  rich  that  the  metal  was  dug  out 
with  a  chisel. 

26.  The  uses  of  silver  are  well  known 
It  is  chiefly  applied  to  the  formation  of 
various  utensils  for  domestic  use,  for 
watches,  and  as  the  medium  of  exchange 
in  money.  A  solution  of  silver  in  nitric 
acid,  diluted  with  water,  will  stain  the 
skin  and  other  animal  substances  of  an  in- 
delible black.  It  is  thus  employed  for 
dying  human  hair,  for  staining  marbles, 
jaspers,  &c.,  and  for  silvering  ornamental 
work. 

QUICKSILVER. 

27.  Quicksilver,  or,  as  the  chemists  call 
it  mercury,  is  a  substance  of  very  great 
importance  in  the  arts.  By  it  our  mirrors 
are-silvered  ;  it  is  the  basis  of  several  pig- 
ments, or  colors  for  painting ;  it  is  used 
in  various  shapes  in  medicine ;  and  its 
importance  in  the  working  of  metals,  by 
amalgamating  with  them,  is  very  great. 

28.  The  word  amalgamation  refers  to 
that  intimate  union  which  is  effected  be- 
tween quicksilver  and  several  other  metals, 
by  grinding  them  together.  The  whole, 
thus  united,  is  called  an  amalgam.  Now, 
as  we  have  spoken  of  this,  and  shown  its 
use  in  refining  gold  and  silver  from  all 
extraneous  substances,  we  'may  as  well 
pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  mercury. 

29.  It  would  be  difl^cult  to  tell,  with 
precision,  why  the  old  chemists  gave  the 
name  of  mercury  to  this  substance.  It  is 
probable  that  the  extreme  fluidity,  which 
seems  to  make  it  all  alive,  or  as  we  say, 
quick-silver,  which  renders  it  so  apt  to  run 
about,  and  so  difiicult  to  lay  hold  of  and 
confine,  may  have  suggested  a  resemblance 
to  that  active  deity,  who  was  feigned  to  be 
the  messenger  of  Jupiter,  always  in  mo- 
tion, with  wings  to  his  cap  and  his  heels ; 
who  was  moreover  with  the  ancients  the 


lumps  of  silver  ever  found  ?  26.  What  of  the 
uses  of  silver  ?  27.  Quicksilver  ?  28.  What  do 
you  understand  by  amalgamation.'    29.  Whv  is 


74 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


god  of  travelling  merchants  and  of  thieves ; 
himself  being  extremely  subtile  and  slip- 
pery. 

30.  Quicksilver  is  sometimes  found  in 
its  fluid  state,  in  the  crevices  of  those  slaty 
substances  from  w^hich  it  is  extracted. 
When  found  in  a  fluid  state,  it  is  in  small 
quantities,  and  seldom  more  than  a  few 
drops  together,  exuding  from  the  roofs  or 
sides  of  the  mines ;  though  sometimes  a 
hollow  in  the  rock  has  been  so  situated  as 
to  catch  a  large  quantity ;  this  is  very  pure, 
and  is  called  virgin  mercury.  They  are 
sometimes  gladdened  with  the  bursting  out 
of  a  drop  or  two,  which  increases  to  a 
stream,  like  a  packthread  in  size,  and 
which  will  run  for  several  days  together. 

31.  The  principal  mines  of  quicksilver 
are  in  Hungary,  Friuli,  in  the  Venetian 
part  of  Italy,  and  in  Spain.  But  it  hap- 
pens conveniently  for  the  gold  mines  of 
South  America,  that  there  is  a  considera- 
ble store  of  it  in  Peru. 

32.  The  most  usual  form  in  which  it  is 
found,  would  not  show  what  it  is  to  the 
unpractised  eye.  It  is  intimately  combin- 
ed with  sulphur,  and  has  then  the  appear- 
ance of  a  reddish  stone ;  in  this  state  it 
is  called  Cinnabar.  This  is  pounded  and 
washed. 

33.  The  entrance  to  the  quicksilver 
mines  of  Friuli  is  on  a  level  with  the 
streets  of  the  town,  from  which  the  de- 
scent is  by  ladders,  into  pits,  ninety  fath- 
oms, or  a  hundred  and  eighty  yards  deep. 
Being  so  low,  they  are  hable  to  inunda- 
tions of  water :  powerful  engines  are  con- 
stantly at  work,  to  keep  them  fit  for  the 
miners.  But  the  chief  evil  attendant  upon 
the  wretched  people  employed  in  them, 
arises  from  the  mercury  itself,  which  in- 
sinuates itself  into  the  very  substance  of 
their  bodies,  especially  by  its  eflluvia,  and 


quicksilver  called  mercury  ?  30.  Is  it  ever  found 
in  its  fluid  state?  31.  Where  are  the  principal 
quicksilver  mines  ?  32.  What  is  meant  by  cinna- 


produces   diseases  of  a   dreadful  naturft, 
which  are  often  very  fatal. 

24.  Some  of  the  people  employed  in 
these  mines  are  condemned  to  work  there 
for  their  crimes ;  and  others  are  hired  by 
the  lure  of  high  wages.  When  the  mer- 
cury first  gains  power  over  their  constitu- 
tion, they  are  affected  with  nervous  trem- 
blings ;  then  their  teeth  drop  out,  for 
mercury  loosens  every  thing  it  touches; 
violent  pains,  especially  in  the  bones,  suc- 
ceed, for  the  quicksilver  penetrates  their 
very  substance  ;  and  then  they  soon  die. 

35.  As  it  is  chiefly  from  the  vapors 
and  fumes  of  the  quicksilver  that  these  ef- 
fects proceed,  the  workmen  take  the  pre- 
caution of  holding  in  their  mouths  a  piece 
of  gold,  which  attracts  the  effluvia,  and 
prevents  the  noxious  matter  from  passing 
into  the  stomach.  Yet  cases  have  occur- 
red, in  which  the  metal  had  so  completely 
saturated  the  body,  that  a  piece  of  brass 
rubbed  with  the  finger  only,  would  become 
white,  from  the  quicksilver  oosing  out  of 
the  man's  flesh ! 

36.  The  ore  in  the  mine  of  Juan  Ca- 
belaca,  in  Peru,  resembles  a  brick  half 
burned.  This  is  broken  and  exposed  to  a 
considerable  heat,  which  drives  the  mer- 
cury off",  sublimed  in  smoke ;  this  smoke 
passes  through  several  pipes,  into  cucur- 
bites  or  vessels  filled  with  water.  The  wa- 
ter condenses  the  smoke,  the  particles  of 
quicksilver  in  it  sink  to  the  bottom,  and 
are  taken  out  pure.  Even  here,  the  work 
men  become  paralytic,  and  do  not  live 
long. 

37.  It  has  been  matter  of  much  dis- 
pute, whether  quicksilver  ought  to  be 
called  a  metal,  a  semimetal,  or  an  imper- 
fect metal.  Its  fluidity  is  a  principal 
reason  for  doubting ;  now,  you  know  all 
metals  become  fluid,  if  there  be  but  heat 


bar  ?  33.  34.  What  of  the  quicksilver  mines  of 
Friuli.'  35.  What  precaution  do  the  workmen 
take  '    36.  What  of  the  ore  in  the  mine  of  Juan 


PRECIOUS    METALS. 


75 


enough  to  melt  them.  Those  who  main- 
tain quicksilver  to  be  a  metal,  say,  it  only 
requires  less  heat  to  melt  it  than  any  of 
the  others.  Indeed,  when  its  heat  is  taken 
away  by  the  application  of  powerful  freez- 
ing mixtures,  it  becomes  hard,  and  is  mal- 
leable, like  lead. 

38.  Mercury  is  the  heaviest  body  in 
nature,  next  to  gold  and  platina.  It  is 
very  fluid,  separating  with  the  utmost  ease. 
It  is  also  extremely  volatile,  passing  into 
smoky  fumes  with  a  heat  just  above  boil- 
ing water ;  yet  then  its  metallic  nature  is 
not  changed ;  its  particles  are  only  com- 
minuted ;  for,  if  this  vapor  be  caught  in 
cold  water,  its  heat  is  thereby  abstracted, 
the  mercury  then  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel,  and  unites  in  one  fluid  brilliant 
mass,  as  before. 

39.  As  quicksilver  is  so  necessary  in 
the  refining  of  gold  from  the  ore,  it  must 
have  been  of  great  importance  to  Spain, 
when  she  had  the  mines  of  Mexico.  At 
Almaden,  in  the  province  of  La  Mancha, 
in  Spain,  is  the  principal  mine ;  which 
was  wrought  only  on  account  of  the  king, 
to  send  over  to  ximerica,  to  assist  in  work- 
ing his  gold  and  silver  mines  there. 

40.  In  1784,  a  great  inundation  took 
place,  owing  to  something  amiss  in  the 
machinery,  which  should  have  carried  off 
the  water.  You  may  judge  of  the  impor- 
tance of  this  substance,  when  you  learn, 
diat  Spain  was  then  obliged  to  apply  to 
Austria,  for  no  less  a  quantity  of  quick- 
silver than  six  thousand  hundred  weight 
every  year,  for  six  years,  till  the  Spanish 
mines  could  be  cleared,  and  got  into 
proper  order  for  working  a^in. 

41.  One  considerable  mine  of  quicksil- 
ver is  at  Idria,  a  town  of  Carniola,  a  pro- 
vince of  Austria ;  not  far  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  Adriatic  or  Gulf  of  Venice. 

42.  This  mine  was  not  known  till  1497, 

Cabelaca  ?  37.  Ought  quicksilver  to  be  called  a 
metal?    38    Is  mercury  or  quicksilver  a  heavy 


when  the  mode  of  its  discovery  was  rather 
curious.  A  few  coopers  inhabited  that 
part  of  the  country,  for  the  convenience 
of  being  near  the  woods.  One  day,  one 
of  them  having  made  a  new  tub,  and 
being  desirous  to  prove  its  soundness, 
placed  it  where  the  water  dripping  from 


^j^^Mpi 

■MHB^Hj 

^^wW 

l^^fiH 

^yma 

IBhB 

wSm 

immm 

^H 

M 

%m^ii\ 

R-—^ 

^===-_^ 

J\         -  ^-— -j5£^s 

ltt 

^^ffl^MftirfeiT^- 

the  rock  might  fall  into  it ;  in  the  morning, 
it  seemed  to  stick  to  the  ground ;  and  at 
first  he,  in  his  superstition,  thought  it  was 
bewitched ;  however,  examining  it  more 
closely,  he  found  something  fluid,  but 
shining,  and  very  heavy,  was  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water  in  his  tub. 

43.  Not  knowing  what  it  was,  he  took 
some  of  it  to  a  neighboring  apothecary, 
who  shrewdly  gave  the  man  a  trifle,  and 
bade  him  bring  all  he  could  find  of  that 
odd  stuflT.  The  story,  however,  soon 
became  public ;  and  a  company  was  formed 
for  searching  the  mountain,  and  working 
the  mine. 

44.  We  will  conclude  this  account  by 
quoting  an  interesting  description  by  a 
traveller,  of  a  descent  into  this  quicksilver 
mine  of  Idria  in  Germany. 

45.  *I  thought  I  would  visit  those 
dreadful  subterraneous  caverns  where  thou- 
sands are  condemned  to  reside,  shut  out 
from  all  hopes  of  ever  seeing  the  light  of 
the  sun,  and  obliged  to  toil  out  a  miser- 
able life    under    the    whips  of  imperious 


body  ?    39.  40.  What  is  said  of  the  quicksilver 

mines  of  Mexico  ?  41.  Idria  ?    42.  43.  The  disco- 

e2 


76 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


task-masters.  Imagine,  to  yourself,  a  hole 
in  the  side  of  a  mountain,  about  five  yards 
over:  down  this  you  are  lowered,  in  a 
kind  of  bucket,  to  more  than  a  hundred 
fathoms,  the  prospect  growing  still  more 
gloomy,  yet  still  widening,  as  you  descend. 
At  length,  after  swinging  in  terrible  sus- 
pense for  some  time  in  this  precarious 
situation,  you  reach  the  bottom,  and  tread 
on  the  ground,  which,  by  its  hollow  sound 
cinder  your  feet,  and  the  reverberations  of 
the  echo,  seems  thundering  at  every  step 
you  lake. 

46.  *  In  this  gloomy  and  frightful  soli- 
tude, you  are  enlightened  by  the  feeble 
gleam  of  lamps,  here  and  there  dispersed, 
so  that  the  wretched  inhabitants  of  these 
mansions  can  go  from  one  place  to  another 
without  a  guide  ;  yet  I  could  scarcely  dis- 
cern for  some  time  any  thing,  not  even 
the  person  who  came  to  show  me  these 
scenes  of  horror. 

47.  *  From  this  description,  I  suppose 
you  have  but  a  disagreeable  idea  of  the 
place  ;  yet  let  me  assure  you  it  is  a  palace, 
if  the  habitation  be  compared  with  the  in- 
habitants;  such  wretches  my  eyes  never 
beheld.  The  blackness  of  their  visages 
only  serves  to  cover  a  horrid  paleness, 
caused  by  the  noxious  qualities  of  the 
mineral  they  are  employed  in  procuring. 

48.  'As  they  in  general  consist  of  male- 
factors, condemned  for  life  to  this  task, 
they  are  fed  at  the  public  expense ;  but 
they  seldom  consume  much  provision,  as 
they  lose  their  appetites  in  a  short  time, 
and  commonly,  in  about  two  years,  expire 
through  a  total  contraction  of  the  joints. 

49.  *  In  this  horrid  mansion,  I  walked 
after  my  guide  for  some  time,  pondering 
on  the  strange  tyranny  and  avarice  of 
mankind,  when  I  was  accosted  by  a  voice 
behind  me,  calling  me  by  name.    I  turned. 


very  of  this  mine  ?  44 — 51.  Give  the  traveller's 
account  of  a  visit  to  this  mine.  52.  What  of  pla- 
tina?    53.  Is  it  a  metal  of  recent  discovery? 


I 

9 


and  saw  a  creature,  black  and  hideou 
who  approached,  and,  with  a  piteous  ac- 
cent, said,  *  Do  you  not  know  me  ?'  What 
was  my  surprise  to  discover  the  features 
of  a  dear  friend !  It  seems  he  had  fough^ 
a  duel  with  an  officer,  against  the  empe- 
ror's command,  and  left  him  for  dead 
and  he  had  been  punished  by  banishmen; 
for  life,  to  labor  in  these  mines. 

50.  'While  he  was  speaking,  a  young 
woman  came  up  to  him,  whose  air  showed 
her  to  have  been  born  to  better  fortune  !■ 
even  this  dreary  situation  could  not  destro^ 
all  her  beauty.  She  was  his  wife !  She 
was  daughter  of  a  high  family  in  Ger- 
many. Being  unable  to  procure  her  hus- 
band's pardon,  she  had  atlectionately  de- 
termined to  share  his  bondage  with  him. 

51.  'It  is  proper  to  add,  that  the  ofiicer 
did  not  die.  When  he  recovered  of  his 
wounds,  he,  with  great  magnanimity,  soli- 
cited pardon  for  his  antagonist,  and  ob- 
tained it.  So  that  in  a  few  months  the 
lady's  brother  came  to  enjoy  the  most 
affecting  scene  of  delivering  them  both 
from  the  mines  ;  and  restoring  them  to  the 
favor  and  fortune  to  which  they  were  en- 
titled by  birth  and  mental  endowments.' 

PLATINA. 

52.  Platina  is  the  heaviest  of  all  metals. 
Its  color  is  that  of  the  purest  silver.  It  is 
very  difficult  of  fusion,  and  has  been  kept 
in  the  most  violent  heat  of  a  glass  furnace, 
for  several  days,  without  undergoing  any 
alteration. 

53.  Platina  is  a  metal  of  comparatively 
recent  discovery.  It  appears  to  have  beei' 
first  mentioned  in  1735;  and  a  quantit} 
was  carried  to  England  from  Jamaica  it 
1741. 

54.  The  part  of  the  world  where  pla- 
tina is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance,  al 
the  present  day,  is  South  America.     Santa 


When  is  it  first  mentioned  ?  54.  Where  is  pla- 
tina found  ?  55.  Where  has  it  been  coined  into 
money  ? 


USEFUL    METALS. 


77 


Fe,  near  Carthagena,  is  the  only  place  in 
South  America  where  it  is  to  be  met  with, 
and  hence  the  Spaniards  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  procuring  it  since  the  year  1750, 
or  thereabouts. 

55.  Platina  has  lately  been  discovered 
in  Spain ;  and  there  are  said  to  be  two 
ancient  candlesticks  in  a  cathedral  in 
Germany,  apparently  made  of  it,  before 
America  was  discovered.  More  recently 
platina  has  been  discovered  in  Russia  and 
Siberia ;  and  in  the  former  place  it  has 
been  coined  into  a  beautiful  piece  of 
money,  assuming  a  value  next  to  gold. 

CHAP.  XXII. 

USEFUL  METALS. 

IRON. 

1.  Iron  is  the  most  abundant  and  useful 
of  all  metals.  It  is  found  almost  every 
where  ;  at  least,  in  all  mountainous  coun- 
tries. Possibly  it  might  be  found  in  val- 
leys also,  if  men  would  dig  deep  enough ; 
or  rather,  if  they  could  do  so  ;  for  the 
waters  would  rush  in,  and  prevent  their 
operation,  in  low  situations. 

2.  Iron  is  so  generally  diffu-sed,  that 
there  is  scarcely  a  stone,  or  even  a  cab- 
bage-stalk, but  what,  properly  treated, 
would  yield  it ;  though  not  in  such  quan- 
tities as  would  pay  the  expense  of  the  sci- 
entific management. 

3.  Norway  exports  several  hundred 
thousand  quintals  of  iron,  chiefly  wrought 
into  bars.  A  few  miles  from  Christian- 
sandt  are  several  iron  mines,  the  ore  of 
which  is  fused  with  less  difficulty  than 
usual.  They  therefore  mix  it  with  ores 
which  are  more  refractory,  which  by  its 
=iid  are  managed  with  greater  ease. 

4.  Wood  is  extremely  scarce  there- 
abouts ;  but,  being  near  the  sea,  the  ore  is 
shipped  off  to  places  more  convenient  for 


i 


1 .  What  of  iron  ?    2    Is  it  generally  diffused  ? 
3.  4.  What  of  the  iron  mines  of  Norway  ?     5. 


the  founderies.  The  principal  iron-works 
are  at  Moss.  There,  three  or  four  hun- 
dred tons  are  melted  at  a  time,  in  each 
kiln.  The  furnace  is  kept  in  constant  heat 
and  action,  day  and  night,  for  about  ten 
months  together  in  every  year.  A  cannon 
foundery  is  closely  connected  with  the 
furnace. 

5.  Russia  is  one  of  the  principal  places 
from  which  we  obtain  tron  ;  and  our  use 
of  that  metal  is  so  great,  and  so  constantly 
increasing,  that  our  own  stores  are  found  to 
be  insufficient.  At  Katherineburgh,  in  Si- 
beria, are  the  principal  iron-works,  belong- 
ing to  the  government.  Here  the  river  Is- 
set  has  a  dam  across  it,  two  hundred  yards 
long,  six  yards  high,  and  forty  broad,  by 
which  the  water  is  raised  to  a  sufficient 
height  to  work  the  several  'mills,  and  pow- 
erful engines,  requisite  for  working  the 
mines  advantageously. 

6.  Iron  appears  to  exist  in  plenty 
through  many  parts  of  North  America. 
Some  mines  have  been  opened,  and  are 
wrought  to  considerable  advantage,  on 
James  River.  As  the  same  plot  seems  to 
be  well  stored  with  coal,  no  doubt  the 
produce  of  these  mines  will,  some  day, 
yield  great  emolument  to  the  proprietors. 

7.  England  abounds  in  mines  of  iron. 
When  these  are  adjacent  to  coal  mines, 
the  benefit  is  very  great,  as  the  ore  can  be 
worked  at  a  trifling  expense.  These 
mines  are  found  chiefly  in  the  northern 
counties  ;  Durham,  Yorkshire,  Lancashire, 
and  Shropshire,  have  many  forges  and 
smelting-houses.  The  forest  of  Dean,  in 
Gloucestershire,  has  long  been  famous  both 
for  its  oak -timber  above  ground,  and  its 
iron  mines  beneath. 

8.  Swedish  iron  is  reckoned  among 
the  best  found  any  where,  especially  for 
small  wares  and  cutlery,  as  is  well  known 
at  Sheffield  and   at    Birmingham.     Great 


Russia?  6.  Iron  in  North  America?  7.  England? 
8.  Sweden  ?  9—13.  What  is  Mr.  Wraxali's  de 


78 


BOOK    OP    COMMERCE. 


quantities  are  smelted  in  Dalecarlia,  where 
Gustavus  Vasa  hid  himself.  If  we  should 
like  to  descend  into  an  iron  mine,  we  had 
best  take  our  description  from  a  famous 
one  in  Sweden.  3Ir.  Wraxall's  visit  to 
that  at  Danmora,  is  quite  to  our  purpose. 
In  most  mines,  the  ore  is  dug  out ;  but  in 
this,  the  whole  is  loosened  by  gunpowder; 
and  the  subterraneous  explosions  caused 
by  this  operation  are  most  terrific. 

9.  The  stones  are  thrown  up,  by  the 
violence  of  the  powder,  to  a  vast  height 
above  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  and  the 
concussion  is  so  great,  as  to  shake  the  sur- 
rounding rock  on  every  side. 

10.  Mr.  Wraxall  arrived  at  the  mouth 
of  the  great  mine,  which  is  half  a  mile 
in  circumference,  just  in  time  to  witness 

^  one  of  these  explosions,  which  take  place 
iwery  day  at  noon.  As  soon  as  the  explo- 
sions had  ceased,  he  determined  to  de- 
scend into  the  mine.  The  inspector  of 
the  mines  remonstrated  against  it  very 
strongly,  but  finding  him  determined,  a 
clean  bucket  was  provided,  and  he  got 
into  it,  with  two  men  to  accompany  him : 
this  bucket  was  fastened  to  a  rope  ;  and 
he  almost  repented  of  his  temerity  when 
he  had  descended  about  half  way,  for  he 
could  but  just  see  the  sky  over  his  head, 
and  in  the  deep  dark  abyss  below  he 
could  discern  nothing;  neither  could  he 
touch  the  sides. 

11.  Had  the  rope  broke,  all  the  three 
must  have  been  dashed  to  pieces.  He 
continued  suspended  in  this  manner  nine 
minutes,  slowly  descending,  before  he 
louched  the  bottom  ;  for  the  mine  was 
four  hundred  and  eighty  feet  deep;  ex- 
ceeding the  height  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
as  much  as  if  half  the  Monument  were  to 
be  placed  on  the  top  of  it. 

12.  When  safely  at  the  bottom,  the 
view  around    him    was    awfully  sublime. 


scription  of  a  visit  to  the  mine  at  Danmora 


Daylight  was  very  feeble  at  that  great 
depth  ;  in  many  places  it  could  not  pene- 
trate, and  flambeaux  were  used.  There 
were  huge  frames  of  wood  stretching 
across  from  one  part  of  the  rock  to  an- 
other, on  which  tlie  miners  sat,  with  great 
unconcern,  boring  holes  for  the  powder, 
against  the  next  day's  explosion.  Yet  af 
such  heights  were  the  men  at  work,  thai 
on  any  false  balancing,  they  must  hav« 
fallen,  and  been  dashed  to  pieces.  Tht 
fragments  torn  up  by  the  explosion  which 
had  taken  place  just  before  his  descent,  laj 
about  in  wild  confusion,  which  made  tha 
scene  the  more  appalling. 

13.  He    remained  three-quarters  of  an~ 
hour  in  these  gloomy  caverns,  traversing 
every  part  of  them  with  his  guides.     Thir-l 
teen  hundred  workmen  are   employed  inj 
them.     Ice  and  cold  surrounded  him  here, 
although,    above,  the    weather    was  quite 
warm.     In   one  of  these  remote  caverna 
were  eight  miserable  wretches,   warming 
themselves  at  a  charcoal  fire,  eating  their 
scanty  pittance,  and   resting  awhile  from 
their  dreadful  occupation. 

14.  We  may  add  to  this  a  quotation 
from  Mr.  Coxe,  who  travelled  thitlier. 

15.  'I  stepped  into  a  bucket,  and  hung 
suspended  in  the  open  air,  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  a  person  were  placed  in  a 
basket  at  the  top  of  a  high  spire,  and 
gradually  let  down  to  the  ground,  by  a 
rope  and  pulley.  While  I  hung  suspended 
in  mid  air,  and  so  giddy  that  I  could  not 
venture  to  look  down,  I  observed  three 
girls  standing  on  the  edge  of  the  bucket 
which  was  ascending,  and  knitting,  with 
as  much  unconcern  as  if  they  had  been  on 
firm  ground.  My  curiosity  was  soon  sat- 
isfied;  I  was  drawn  up  again  in  the  same 
manner,  and  to  prevent  giddiness,  I  closed 
my  eyes.' 

16.  The  iron  mines  of  Sweden  employ 


14.  15    Mr.  Coxe's  description.?   16.  How  man? 


USEFUL    METALS. 


79 


twenty-five  thousand  persons;  and  fifty- 
seven  thousand  tons  of  metal  are  produced 
every  year. 

17.  Iron  is  not  often  found  in  a  metallic 
state,  but  most  commonly  in  reddish- 
hrown  stony  lumps  ;  sometimes  fibrous. 

18.  The  first  operation  is,  by  violent 
fire,  to  reduce  these  stones  to  a  state  of 
fusion.  This  is  done  in  vast  furnaces, 
where  the  heat  is  excited,  and  kept  up  for 
months  together ;  fresh  fuel  and  fresh  ore 
being  laid  on  the  top  in  alternate  layers. 
As  the  metal  melts,  it  drips  down  through 
the  bars  of  the  grate,  into  a  channel,  which 
conveys  it  into  hollows  made  'in  sand, 
where  it  hisses,  boils,  and  eventually  sink- 
ing, cools,  in  the  shape  provided  for  it. 
The  larger  masses  of  iron  thus  obtained, 

J,  are  called  sotvs,  and   the  smaller  sort  are 
^  called  pigs. 

19.  This  cast-iron  is  harsh  and  un- 
manageable ;  being  very  brittle,  it  flies  and 

,  cracks  under  the  hammer.     Its   parts  are 

^  globular  like  so  many  iron  peas,  just  adher- 
ing together,  and  separating  with  a  blow. 
Cast  iron  must  therefore  be  wrought,  with 
hammers  of  great  weight,  lifted  by  mill- 
work.     This  immense    power,  while   the 

-  iron  is  in  a  melted  state,  forces  these  round 
globules  into  a  longer  shape,  till  they  be- 
come threads ;  and  by  being  frequently 
wrought,  these  threads  become  intertwist- 

*^^d,  so  as  to  produce  great  toughness,  al- 
though there  is  great  })liability  also.  Or, 
the  iron  is  made  excellently  malleable  by 
passing  it,  while  in  a  state  of  fusion,  be- 
tween immense  rollers.  Although  Swed- 
ish iron  is  reckoned  the  most  pliable,  yet 
English  iron  becomes  equal  to  it,  when  it 
is  wrought  with  sufficient  labor.  Spanish 
iron  is  apt  to  crack ;  and  German  iron  is 
too  coarse,  except  for  ordinary  purposes. 


persons  are  employed  in  the  Swedish  mines  ?  17. 
How  is  iron  generally  found  ?  18.  What  is  the 
first  operation  with  it  ?  What  is  meant  by  smps 
and  pigs  of  iron.'     19    What  of  cast-iron .'    20. 


20.  Steel  is  iron  highly  wrought,  and 
refined  by  a  process  in  which,  being 
heated,  but  not  fused,  with  charcoal,  bones, 
leather,  and  such  matters,  it  imbibes  some 
sulphureous  principle,  which  renders  its 
grain  finer,  the  fibres  more  elastic,  and  the 
whole  surface  more  susceptible  of  a  polish. 
It  thus  becomes  admirable  for  all  finer 
wares,  and  all  cutting  tools,  where  the 
edge  must  be  extremely  thin,  and  yet  very 
strong  ;  as  knives,  razors,  lancets,  &c. 

21.  There  are  two  places  in  Great 
Britain  well  worthy  of  mention,  for  the 
extent  of  their  iron  works.  One  is  Cole- 
hi'ook-Dale,  in  Shropshire.  The  other  is 
in  Scotland,  called,  from  the  river  on 
which  it  stands,  the  '  Carron  iron-works  ;* 
just  above  where  the  river  enters  the 
Frith  of  Forth. 

22.  At  the  latter  place,  above  a  hundred 
acres  of  land  have  been  converted  into 
reservoirs,  to  supply  the  machinery  with 
the  continual  power  of  water;  by  which 
eighteen  large  wheels  are  turned.  Sixteen 
hundred  men  are  in  constant  employ, 
whose  weekly  wages  amount  to  almost 
seven  hundred  pounds.  Six  thousand  five 
hundred  tons  of  iron  are  smelted  every 
year. 

23.  At  these  most  extensive  works,  are 
cast  five  thousand  pieces  of  cannon  annu- 
ally ;  some  of  them  are  ship's  guns,  carrying 
balls  of  thirty-two  pounds'  weight,  the  gun 
itself  weighing  forty-two  hundred  weight. 
Huge  cylinders  are  also  cast  here,  for 
steam-engines,  and  various  other  machine^ 
ry.  Also  kitchen  cooking  machines,  ovens, 
stove-grates,  &c.  down  to  articles  of  di- 
minutive size,  and  great  nicety  of  work- 
manship. 

24.  Iron  ore  is  abundantly  scattered 
throughout  North  America;    and  the  re- 


What  is  steel .'  21.  What  are  the  two  places  in 
Great  Britain  worthy  of  mention  for  their  iron- 
works  ?  22.  23.  What  of  the  Carron  iron- works  ? 
24.  What  of  iron  in  the  U.  States  ?.    25.  What  of 


^0 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


Bources  of  the  United  States  with  respect 
to  this  metal,  are  very  considerable.  The 
manufactories  of  iron  are  numerous ;  and 
all  the  various  articles  from  cannons  and 
heavy  machinery  to  spikes  and  nails, 
which  are  formed  of  this  useful  metal,  are 
now  made,  in  an  ingenious  and  excellent 
manner,  in  this  country. 
COPPER. 

25.  Copper  is  a  well  known  metal,  so 
called  from  its  having  been  first  discovered, 
or  at  least  wrought  to  any  extent,  in  the 
island  of  Cyprus.  It  is  of  a  fine  red  color, 
and  has  a  great  deal  of  briUiancy.  It  has 
a  sensible  odor,  especially  when  rubbed 
or  heated,  and  is  of  an  unpleasant  taste. 
Copper,  in  point  of  usefulness,  yields  only 
to  iron ;  it  is  widely  dispersed,  being 
found  pure,  and  also  combined  with  vari- 
ous mineral  substances.  It  is  much  used 
for  alloying  gold  and  silver. 

26.  Copper  is  usually  found  in  mines 
deep  down  in  the  earth ;  though  some  few 
mines  are  open  to  the  air,  as  the  mine  in 
the  Pary's  mountain,  in  Anglesea,  in  Wales. 

27.  It  is  generally  the  case,  that  when 
a  country  is  rich  in  ores  underneath  the 
surface,  it  has  no  rural  beauties.  This  is 
especially  the  case  where  mines  of  copper 
are  found,  for  the  fumes  of  it  are  destruc- 
tive to  vegetation.  As  you  come  near  to 
Pary's  mine,  you  see  nothing  but  rough 
shapeless  rocks,  piled  one  upon  another, 
till  you  approach  a  large  basin,  or  wide 
pit,  having  on  one  side  a  small  lake,  which 
no  bird  ever  sips  at.  The  fumes  which 
rise  all  around  from  the  burning  heaps  of 
copper,  are  enough  to  suffocate  one,  if  in- 
cautiously inhaled.  Mosses  and  lichens, 
which  grow  on  every  other  rock,  cannot 
live  here. 

28.  The    ore    is    abundant  in    sulphur. 


copper  ?  26.  How  is  it  usually  found  ?  27.  What 
of  the  rural  appearance  of  a  country,  which  is 
rich  in  ores  ?  28.  Does  the  ore  abound  in  sul- 
phur ?    How  is  it  purified  from  that  substance ' 


from  which  it  is  purified  by  baminf. 
After  being  broken  into  lumps  about  thu 
size  of  an  egg,  it  is  placed  between  two 
very  long  walls,  twenty  or  even  fifty  yards 
in  length,  equally  distant  in  every  part, 
and  about  four  feet  high.  The  ore  is  pileif 
up,  not  only  to  the  height  of  those  walla, 
but  much  above  them.  The  top  is  theu 
roofed  over  with  flat  stones  and  clay,  so 
closely,  that  the  fumes  cannot  escape , 
or  the  walls  are  sometimes  completely 
arched  over,  with  bricks  for  this  purpose 

29.  At  regular  distances  flues  are  formed 
at  the  top  of  these  arches,  which  stride  to 
a  considerable  distance,  bending  over  like 
a  Gothic  arch.  The  fumes  of  the  sulphur, 
which  rise  from  the  ore  when  it  is  set  on 
fire,  rise  up  these  flues,  and  being  cooled 
by  the  length  through  which  they  pass, 
they  strike  against  the  top  of  the  arch,  and 
fall  down  in  a  very  fine  dust  of  sulphur. 
This  is  gathered,  melted,  and  run  into 
moulds,  when  it  becomes  the  Stone-hnm 
stone  of  the  shops.  These  vast  mounds  of 
ore  take  several  months  to  burn  ;  four,  six, 
or  even  ten  months. 

30.  This  loss  of  the  sulphur  reduces 
the  ore  to  one-fourth  of  its  original  bulk, 
but  it  is  now  good  copper.  It  is  then 
pressed  and  washed,  to  fit  it  for  the  mar- 
ket. The  water  used  on  this  occasion  i 
becomes  strongly  impregnated  with  cop- 
per, which  the  acid  of  the  sulphur  had 
dissolved.     This  water  is  carefully  stored 

in  proper  pits,  as  is  all  the  water  they  find 
in  the  mines ;  because,  from  this,  some  of 
the  finest  metal  is  extracted,  by  a  very 
curious  process. 

31.  The  pits  are  thirty  or  forty  feet 
long,  half  as  much  broad,  and  nearly  two 
feet  deep.  Into  these  pits,  full  of  the  im- 
pregnated water,  they  put  a  considerable 


29.  How  is  the  stone-brimstone  of  the  shops  ob- 
tained.? 30.  What  is  done  with  the  ore  when 
purified  ?  What  of  the  water  used  on  this  occa- 
sion? 31.  What  are  put  into  these  pits  ?  32. 33  34 


USEFUL    METALS. 


81 


quantity  of  iron ;  old  iron  bits,  bars,  or 
broken  anchors,  will  do  ;  but  it  is  found 
best  to  procure  new  plates  of  iron,  four 
feet  long,  half  a  yard  broad,  and  almost  an 
inch  thick.  The  particles  of  copper  float- 
ing in  the  water  precipitate  •  themselves 
upon  the  iron ;  which  is  in  the  mean 
while  dissolved  by  the  acid  liquor,  into  a 
yellowish  ochre.  The  iron  pieces  are  fre- 
quently taken  out,  and  the  copper  on  them 
scraped  off.  This  is  repeated  till  the  iron 
is  wholly  consumed ;  and  the  copper  thus 
obtained  is  the  purest  of  any. 

32.  The  appearance  of  this  Pary's  mine 
is  uncommon,  because  it  is  in  a  manner 
open  to  the  day  ;  being  a  large  pit,  a  hun- 
dred yards  long,  about  forty  yards  wide, 
and  twenty-four  yards,  or  above  seventy 
feet  deep.  The  copper  ore  is  cut  out,  as 
stone  from  a  quarry,  in  large  lumps.  At 
the  ends  of  this  pit  are  deep  hollows  cut, 
penetrating  into  the  mountain  ;  the  roofs 
of  which  are  supported  by  pillars  of  metal- 
lic ore,  left  untouched.  These  caverns 
wind  a  considerable  way  under  ground, 
but  the  whole  mass  over  them,  sides,  and 
roof,  will  disappear,  as  they  proceed  in 
cutting  the  ore  away. 

33.  The  sides  of  this  open  pit  are  almost 
perpendicular.  The  descent  into  it  is  only 
by  rugged  steps,  cut  in  the  rocky  ore,  in  a 
few  places,  assisted  by  several  ladders,  and 
a  rope  to  hold  by.  The  most  surprising 
part  of  the  operation,  is  the  obtaining  the 
ore  from  the  sides  of  this  pit.  Wooden 
platforms  are  projected  from  the  top  of 
the  opening. 

34.  A  windlass  on  each  serves  to  lower 
and  raise  the  baskets  which  convey  the 
miners ;  who  thus  descend  down  the  steep 
sides  to  the  part  where  they  work,  on  the 
upright  face  of  the  precipice.  There  they 
get  out  the  ore  with  pickaxes,  or  blast 
it  with  gunpowder;    tumbling    down   the 


What   is  said  of  Pary's  mine  ?     'if).  Copper  in 

Cornwall  ?    36.  May  copper  be  obtained  from  tlie 

5 


masses  of  ore,  with  a  thundering  noise,  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pit. 

35.  Vast  mines  of  copper  are  wrought 
in  the  county  of  Cornwall  in  England. 
That  couiity  is  chiefly  famous  for  tin  ;  but 
the  copper  is  also  in  abundance,  and  of 
great  importance.  Large  lumps  of  native 
copper,  of  considerable  purity,  are  found 
there,  not  very  deep  in  the  soil.  But  the 
ore  is  plentiful,  and  in  constant  working. 

36.  Much  copper,  and  of  the  purest 
kind,  is  obtained  from  the  lumps  of  mun- 
dic,  or  marcasite,  found  in  the  tin  mines. 
These  lumps  were,  for  years,  regarded  as 
of  no  value,  and  were  thrown  away ;  but 
science  has  now  discovered  a  mode  of  ex- 
tracting copper  from  them,  to  the  amount 
of  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds 
sterling  per  annum ;  and  it  is  equal  in 
goodness  to  the  Swedish. 

37.  There,  is  a  peculiar  copper  mine  at 
Ecton  Hill,  near  the  river  Dove,  in  Derby- 
shire. Thirteen  thousand  pounds  were 
spent  in  searching  before  any  ore  could  be 
found ;  then,  at  two  hundred  yards'  depth^ 
vast  quantities  were  discovered.  The  pe- 
culiarity of  this  mine  is,  that  the  ore  does 
not  spread  in  veins,  hither  and  thither,  as 
is  commonly  the  case,  but  sinks  down  per- 
pendicularly, widening  as  it  deepens,  in 
the  shape  of  a  huge  bell.  It  is  the  deep- 
est mine  in  Great  Britain. 

38.  Sweden  abounds  in  copper,  which 
is  in  high  esteem  :  this  is  principally  found 
in  the  province  of  Dalecarlia,  whence  also 
comes  their  iron.  These  mines  have  been 
wrought  for  ages.  On  approaching  them, 
one  is  amazed  by  the  huge  machines  con- 
structed to  draw  up  the  ore,  some  of  the 
water-wheels  being  above  forty  feet  in  di- 
ameter. A  great  chasm  appears,  of  extra- 
ordinary depth ;  for  the  caverns  dug  out 
not  being  properly  supported  at  first,  the 
whole  fell  in. 


lumps  of  marcasite  found  in  the  tin  mine?    37. 
What  is  said  of  the  copper  mine  at  Ecton  Hill  ? 


m 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


39.  You  pass  into  this  great  mouth  by 
wooden  stairs,  which  are  carried  over  the 
wild  mass  of  fallen  rocks.  After  this  deep 
descent,  you  proceed  horizontally.  The 
day-light  is  soon  lost,  and  the  close  vapors 
become  offensive,  especially  as  you  descend 
still  lower  down  these  winding  steps. 
The  pestilential  fumes,  the  darkness,  and 
the  rocks,  give  a  dreadful  appearance  to 
the  whole.  The  workmen  seem  like  un- 
substantial spectres,  rather  tlian  living  in- 
habitants of  the  earth.  At  one  part,  the 
Bteam  is  so  hot  as  to  scorch  ;  and  the  sul- 
))hureous  stench  is  intolerable. 

40.  In  long  winding  galleries,  and  liigh- 
roofod  caverns,  the  workmen,  almost  na- 
ked, are  seen  hewing  out  the  rich  ore,  and 
wheeling  it  in  barrows,  towards  the  spot 
where  the  buckets  hang,  which  are  to  raise 
it  above  ground. 

41.  It  takes  an  hour  to  go  down  to  the 
bottom  of  this  pit,  as  it  is  twelve  hundred 
feet  deep :  five  hundred  men  are  employed 
in  it ;  and  it  was  here  that  the  great  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa  hid  himself,  as  a  common  la- 
borer, before  he  was  raised  to  the  throne. 

42.  A  Laplander,  travelling  with  his 
rein-deer,    near    Drontheim,    in    Norway, 


discovered  copper;  which,  on  examina- 
tion, led  to  the  opening  of  a  considerable 
and    productive    mine.      This    has   been 


38 — 41.  Describe  the  copper  mines  of  Dalecarlia 
in  Sweden.  42.  What  is  said  of  the  Laplander's 
discovery  of  copper  in  Norway  ?    43.  Is  copoer 


wrought  almost  two  hundred  years.  Some 
of  the  veins  are  almost  worn  out,  but  th* 
eastern  division  is  still  productive.  The 
foulness  of  the  air  makes  the  work  very 
oppressive  ;  and  sometimes  a  sugary  taste 
upon  the  lips,  warns  the  workmen  to  flee. 
Gunpowder  is  used  to  split  the  rocks  and 
loosen  the  ore,  which  is  principally  of  a 
gravelly  nature. 

43.  Very  fine  copper  is  found  in  Japan  ; 
some  of  it,  indeed,  is  mixed    with    gold, 

i  which  they  separate.  They  cast  it  into 
Ismail  cylinders,  the  size  of  one's  finger, 
and  something  longer  than  one's  hand. 

44.  Copper  is  indeed  distributed  wide- 
ly; scarcely  a  mountainous  country  but 
has  its  copper  mines.  Ireland,  Hungary, 
Spain,  may  be  added  to  those  named  in 
Europe ;  while  the  south  of  Africa,  Hud- 
son's Bay,  in  North  America,  and  especial- 
ly Peru  and  Chile  in  South  America,  are 
plentifully  stored  with  this  valuable  ore. 

45.  One  of  the  largest  masses  of  native 
copper  ever  noticed,  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  Schoolcraft,  in  the  North  West  Terri- 
tory, about  thirty  miles  from  lake  Supe- 
rior. It  weighs,  by  estimation,  2200 
pounds.  Copper  is  met  with  in  consider- 
able quantities  in  several  parts  of  the 
United  States ;  but  it  is  not  wrought  yet  to 
a  great  extent. 

46.  Copper  is  applied  to  many  useful 
purposes.  It  is  formed  into  thin  sheets  by 
being  heated  in  a  furnace,  and  subjected 
to  pressure  between  iron  rollers.  These 
sheets  are  used  for  the  sheathing  of  the 
bottoms  of  ships,  the  covering  of  roofs 
and  domes,  the  constructing  of  boilers  and 
stills  of  a  large  size  &c.  The  use  of  cop- 
per in  engraving  is  also  very  considerable  ; 
although  steel  is  now  preferred  as  being 
harder  and  more  durable. 

47.  Copper  may  be  drawn  into  wn-e  of 


found  in  Japan.?  44.  In  what  other  countries 
does  it  abound  ?  45.  Where  was  founa  one  of 
the  largest  masses  of  native  copper  ever  known  ' 


USEFUL    METALS. 


83 


great  tenacity,  or  beaten  into  very  thin 
leaves,  though  not  so  thin  as  gold  may  be 
beaten.  Verdegrisy  an  article  of  consider- 
able use  in  the  arts,  and  in  dying,  is  made 
trom  copper ;  it  is  the  rust  of  the  metal, 
and  exhibits  a  beautiful  green.  It  is  a 
deadly  poison. 

BRASS. 

48.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  and  useful 
productions  obtained  from  copper,  is  brass. 
This  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  zinc. 
\  brown  stone  called  calamine,  is  an  ore 
of  zinc  ;  if  layers  of  copper  are  intermin- 
|led  with  layers  of  calamine  in  powder, 
und  charcoal,  the  application  of  a  strong 
heat  will  drive  out  the  zinc  in  vapor  which 
will  penetrate  the  copper,  and  change  it 
into  brass,  which  is  very  different  in  color, 
and  much  harder.  By  this  process,  cop- 
per loses  its  malleability,  and  is  less  liable 
to  rust. 

49.  The  manufacturing  of  brass  seems 
to  have  been  very  anciently  discovered,  as 
vre  read  of  its  being  known  before  the 
flood  {Genesis,  iv.  22.)  The  earliest  ac- 
counts we  have,  represent  many  weapons 
of  war  as  being  made  of  it,  as  well  as  most 
of  the  money. 

50.  The  best  brass  consists  of  four  parts 
of  copper  to  one  of  zinc  ;  and  when  the 
latter  is  in  greater  proportion,  compounds 
are  formed  called  tombac,  Dutch  gold,  and 
pinchbeck.  Brass  is  much  used  in  the 
small  wheels  and  other  nicer  parts  of 
watch -making. 

BELL-METAL. 

51.  Bell-metal  is  composed  of  eighty 
parts  of  copper  and  twenty  of  tin.  Its 
color  is  grayish  white  ;  it  is  very  hard,  so- 
norous, and  elastic.  Less  tin  is  used  for 
church  bells  than  for  clock  bells ;  and  in 
very  small  bells,  a  little  zinc  is  added  to 
the  alloy. 


46.  To  what  purposes  may  copper  be  applied.? 

47.  What  of  verdegris.?    48.  Brass  ^  49.  Was  its 
manufacture  known  to  the   ancients .'    50.  Of 


CHAP.  xxin. 

USEFUL  METALS.— CoNTiHU ED. 

TIN. 

1.  Tin  is  a  metal,  which  has  a  fine 
white  color  like  silver.  When  fresh  its 
brilliancy  is  very  great.  It  has  a  slightly 
disagreeable  taste,  and  emits  a  peculiar 
smell  when  rubbed.  It  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  earliest  articles  of  com- 
merce in  Britain  ;  for  the  Phenicians  trad- 
ed to  England  for  tin,  five  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  ^ 

2.  They  called  Britain,  Baratanac,  or 
the  land  of  tin;  and  some  have  even 
thought  that  to  be  the  origin  of  the  pre- 
sent name  of  the  Island.  It  is  an  arti- 
cle of  considerable  exportation  to  this  day. 
Some  countries  in  Germany  have  mines 
of  tin ;  but  the  supply  is  not  in  any  quan- 
tity beyond  what  is  sufficient  for  their  own 
use.  It  is  England  which  affords  to  most 
other  nations  this  simple  and  useful  ma- 
terial. The  tin  mines  are  situated  iu 
Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  where  are  also 
many  productive  mines  of  copper. 

3.  In  some  places,  the  ore  of  tin  bears 
so  much  the  appearance  of  common 
stones,  that  it  is  only  by  their  great  weight 
that  the  presence  of  tin  is  discovered.  In 
other  parts,  tin  and  earthy  substances  are 
so  intimately  mingled,  that  they  seem  like 
a  stone,  of  a  bluish-gray  color. 

4.  The  ore  is  usually  found  in  veins, 
called  by  the  miners  a  lode.  These  veins 
penetrate  the  hardest  rocks.  Small  veins 
are  first  discovered,  not  more,  perhaps, 
than  half  an  inch  in  diameter ;  but  they 
increase  in  substance  as  they  are  followed. 
The  direction  of  these  veins  is  usually  east 
and  west.  Frequently,  masses  of  ore  of 
twenty  pounds'  weight,  are  found  ;  some- 
times the  vein,  or  lode,  breaks  off  sudden- 


what  does  the  best  brass  consist .?     51.  What  of 
bell-metal  ? 

1.  What  of  tin.'  2.  What  was  Britain  called  by 


84 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


ly,  and  they  have  to  huDt  for  the  continua- 
tion ;  miners  who  are  accustomed  to  this, 
are  aware,  that  a  little  on  one  side  they 
shall  find  the  broken  vein  ;  they  dig,  there- 
fore, and  in  general  soon  discover  it. 

5.  They  follow  thus  the  lode,  or  vein, 
let  it  wind  which  way  it  will,  through  the 
flinty  rock.  When  the  waters  become 
troublesome,  they  are  pumped  up  by  ma- 
chinery, kept  constantly  in  motion  by 
steam-engines.  Sometimes  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  cut  a  drain,  called  an  adit,  slo- 
ping downwards,  to  let  them  off;  when 
this  can  be  made,  it  saves,  when  once 
constructed,  much  expense. 

6.  To  raise  the  ore  to  the  surface,  they 
frequently  sink  a  shaft,  just  over  the  spot 
in  which  they  want  it.  Herein,  the 
geometrical  knowledge  of  the  captain  of 
the  mine  appears  to  advantage ;  whatever 
may  be  the  windings  of  the  mine  below, 
he  traces  similar  windings  on  the  surface 
above,  and  tells  the  workmen  where  to 
begin  sinking  the  shaft,  or  well,  at  the 
same  time  those  below  begin  working  up- 
wards ;  and  both  work  on    till  they  meet. 

7.  In  this  case,  if  those  above  should  be 
Dut  half  a  yard  perpendicularly  away  from 
those  below,  it  would  be  thought  a  bung- 
ling job.  The  rope  to  descend  through 
the  shaft  must  hang  perpendicularly;  if  it 
press  against  the  sides,  it  will  not  work. 

8.  At  the  top  of  this  shaft  is  placed  a 
windlass,  by  means  of  which  the  kibbuts, 
or  baskets  of  ore,  are  wound  up. 

9.  Near  St.  Austle,  in  Cornwall,  is  a 
tin  mine,  which  has  not  less  than  fifty 
shafts,  half  of  which  are  still  in  use. 
Some  of  these  veins  have  been  worked  a 
full  mile  in  lengh.  The  depth  of  the 
shaft  is  nearly  seven  hundred  feet. 

10.  At  St.  Austle's  Moor,  there  is  an- 
other mine  of  stream  tin.  Into  a  narrow 
valley,  about  three  miles  long,  many  small 


the  Phenicians  ?  3.  4.  What  is  said  of  the  ore  ?  5. 
How  do  they  follow  this  vein  ?    6.  7.  8.  How  do 


streams  from  the  hills  empty  themselves. 
Almost  stagnating,  they  have  formed  a 
collection  of  soil,  nearly  twenty  feet  deep; 
and  the  several  materials  of  which  this  is 
composed,  have  settled,  the  heaviest  at 
bottom,  of  course,  into  several  stra'  4. 

11.  The  first  strata  are  earth,  c\ay,  and 
gravel ;  then  comes  a  stratum  of  more 
stony  substances,  and  firmer  consistence  ; 
these  reach  to  the  depth  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet.  Beneath  these  comes  a  layer  of  tin 
stones,  some  as  big  as  an  apple,  some 
small  almost  as  sand.  The  tin  found  in 
these  stones  is  very  pure.  At  the  depth  of 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet,  you  come  to  the 
solid  rock,  in  which  is  no  tin.  They  wash 
off  the  earth,  sand,  and  gravel,  by  conduct- 
ing narrow  streams  of  water  through  the 
most  promising  parts,  and  thereby  they 
lay  bare  the  tin  stones  with  tolerable  ease. 

12.  The  ore,  when  raised  out  of  the 
mine,  is  broken  in  stamping  mills,  the  lift- 
ers of  which  are  kept  in  action  by  water- 
wheels,  and  are  shod  with  iron.  They 
continue  stamping  till  the  ore  is  small 
enough  to  pass  away  through  an  iron  gra- 
ting beneath.  A  run  of  water  in  the  mean 
time  helps  to  cleanse  it. 

13.  The  next  process  is  to  melt  it, 
which  is  done  in  furnaces  built  on  pur- 
pose ;  the  melter  having  about  one-third 
of  the  produce  for  his  trouble.  It  is  then 
assayed,  to  examine  its  fineness.  When 
it  has  been  run  into  large  blocks,  it  must 
be  coined,  before  it  can  be  marketable. 
This  is  done  by  the  proper  officer,  who 
cuts  off  from  one  corner  a  small  part,  and 
then  stamps  it  with  the  seal  of  the  Dutchy 
of  Cornwall,  and  the  name  of  the  smelter. 
A  duty  of  four  shillings  on  every  hundred 
weight  is  paid  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  as 
Duke  of  Cornwall.  This  brings  in  from 
ten  to  thirty  thousand  pounds  per  annum. 

14.  The  substance  of  pewter  is  tin;  the  . 


they  raise  the  ore  to  the  surface  ?  9.  What  of  the 
Cornwall  tin  mine?    10.  II.  St.  Austle's  Moor ? 


USEFUL    METALS. 


85 


ovher  metals  mingled  to  make  it  pewter,  are 
lead  and  brass,  in  small  quantities.  When 
pewter  plates,  &c.  were  displaced  by  the 
introduction  of  earthenware,  one  consider- 
able market  for  tin  was  destroyed. 

15.  In  the  operation  of  making  tin-plate, 
very  thin  plates  of  iron  are  covered  with 
a  coat  of  tin  ;  which  gives  to  the  tin  more 
solidity  and  firmness  tlian  it  possesses  nat- 
»rally.  These  tin-plates  are  then  wrought 
into  utensils  of  great  variety,  for  domestic 
service,  being  very  cleanly  and  whole- 
jome. 

16.  The  process  is  as  follows:  Thin 
plates  of  iron,  perfectly  clean  and  bright, 
Are  dipped  into  melted  tin ;  which  is  kept 
in  its  metallic  state  by  a  covering  of  melted 
tallow,  by  which  it  is  defended  from  the 
air.  The  affinity  between  the  two  metals 
is  such,  that  the  iron  is  instantly,  and  firm- 
ly, covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  tin.  This 
tin  covering  keeps  the  iron  from  rusting, 
and  also  renders  it  very  pliable  under  the 
hammer ;  so  that  it  is  easily  formed  into 
many  culinary  articles.  The  surface  of 
this  tin-plate  is  rendered  peculiarly  smooth, 
by  being  passed  between  powerful  rollers. 

17.  The  inside  of  copper  and  iron  ves- 
sels can  also  be  covered  with  a  coating  of 
tin.  To  perform  this,  the  inside  of  the 
vessel  must  be  well  cleaned,  by  rubbing 
it  with  an  acid  or  with  sal-ammoniac. 
The  tin  is  then  melted  in  the  vessel,  and 
by  the  help  of  old  rags  doubled  up,  is 
spread  all  over  the  surface,  wherever  it  is 
wished  that  it  should  adhere. 

18.  Tin  makes  part  of  the  cargoes  sent 
out  to  China.  The  Dutch  made  great 
profit,  by  supplying  the  Chinese  from  some 
mines  of  tin  in  Sumatra.  The  East-India 
Company,  therefore,  determined  to  share 
with  them  in  this   trade,  by  sending  out 


12.  What  is  done  with  the  ore  ?  13.  The  next 
process?  14.  What  of  pewter .'  15.16.  How  is 
tin  plate  made  ?  17.  The  inside  of  copper — ?  18. 
Is  tin  sent  to  China  .=>  19-  What  of  lead.?  20.  How 
8 


annually  many  tons  of  tin,  from  the  En- 
glish mines  in  Cornwall. 
LEAD. 

19.  Lead  is  of  a  bluish  gray  color;  it  is 
upwards  of  eleven  times  heavier  than  wa- 
ter. Next  to  iron,  lead  is  the  most  exten- 
sively dispersed,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  of  metals:  it  has  never  b.een 
found  pure,  but  mostly  combined  with 
iron,  manganese,  antimony,  silver,  or  their 
ores.  The  lead  used  for  common  pur- 
poses is  obtained  from  an  ore  called  galena, 
or  sulphurate  of  lead. 

20.  About  seven  or  eight  hundred 
pounds  weight  of  lead  are  obtained  from  a 
ton,  that  is,  twenty  hundred  weight  of 
ore  ;  there  is  commonly  a  mixture  of  silver 
with  lead  ;  and  a  ton  of  the  metal  will 
yield  nearly  fifty  ounces  of  silver. 

21.  Lead  is  one  of  the  softest  of  metals; 
it  may  be  cut  with  a  knife,  yet  it  is  not 
very  ductile  ;  for  it  cannot  be  drawn  into 
wire,  nor  can  it  well  stand  the  pressure 
v/hich  might  make  it  into  a  thin  leaf;  it  so 
easily  cracks.  Yet  the  closeness  of  its 
particles  is  such,  that  it  is  the  heaviest 
metal,  next  to  gold  and  silver. 

22.  All  mechanics  who  work  in  lead, 
suffer  more  or  less  from  its  poisonous 
efHuvia.  Even  when  transformed  into 
white  lead  for  painting,  the  artificers  are 
afflicted  with  a  peculiar,  and  very  terrible 
sort  of  colic. 

23.  Lead  is  easily  calcined  by  fire,  or 
converted  into  a  fine  powder.  And  this 
powder  is  made  to  take  a  variety  of  beau- 
tiful colors,  according  as  the  heat  is  man- 
aged, from  yellow  called  massicot,  to  a 
fiery  red  called  minium,  or  more  com- 
monly, red  lead.  It  may  even  be  convert 
ed  into  glass,  opaque  as  it  is ;  and  much 
of  it  is  used  in  making  that  transparent 


many  pounds  may  be  obtained  from  a  ton  of  the 
ore  ?  How  much  silver  ?  21.  What  of  the  proper- 
ties of  lead  ?  22.  The  poisonous  effluvia?  23.  May 
lead  be  calcined  ?    What  is  massicot  ?    Minium .' 


d« 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


body.  Sugar  of  lead,  which  is  a  salt 
drawn  from  it  by  vinegar,  is  extremely 
sweet ;  but  it  is  one  of  the  rankest  poisons 
we  know  of. 

24.  Lead  is  forced  through  a  mill  of 
peculiar  construction,  by  the  glaziers,  so 

J  as  to  produce  a  groove  on  each  side,  for 
holding  the  small  squares  of  glass  in  case- 
ments. It  is  also,  by  wooden  rollers, 
made  into  flat  sheets,  three  or  four  feet 
wide,  and  of  still  greater  length;  in  which 
state  it  is  used  for  sinks  and  cisterns,  or 
for  covering  houses. 

25.  Melted  lead  is  poured  through  re- 
volving sieves,  raised  to  a  great  height, 
over  a  cistern  of  water,  to  form  shot ;  the 
revolving  sieves  let  it  through  in  small 
drops  while  liquid ;  and  in  that  liquid  state 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosj)liere  makes 
every  single  drop  perfectly  round  ;  it  how- 
ever cools  in  falling  from  so  great  a  height, 
and,  dropping  into  water,  it  is  not  flat- 
tened, but  retains  its  roundness.  In  this 
manner  shot  is  formed,  for  sportsmen. 
Different  sized  sieves  make  the  shot  larger 
or  smaller,  by  letting  through  more  or  less 
of  the  melted  lead. 

26.  The  ore  of  lead  is  sometimes  dug 
out  with  a  pickaxe,  and  sometimes  the 
mine  is  blasted  with  gunpowder.  But  I 
have  found  a  story  which  may  amuse  you, 
while  it  shows  the  manner  of  the  opera- 
tion. It  is  taken  from  Gilpin's  Picturesque 
Tour  in  Scotland : 

27.  'A  gentleman,  of  the  name  of 
Lothian,  had  long  sought  ore,  in  the  hills 
near  Cory-lin,  but  in  vain.  Many  a  time 
he  resolved  to  desist,  but  the  workmen 
raised  his  spirits  with  fresh  hopes :  some- 
times, they  said  the  rock  was  just  cut 
through,  which  had  occasioned  so  much 
delay  ;  or  the  soil  was  manifestly  marked 
with  signs  of  ore;  or  springs  were  found 
which  had  the  true  mineral  tinge.     They 

Sugar  of  lead?  24.  For  what  is  lead  used? 
85    Describe  the  orocess  of  manufacturing  shot. 


thus  deluded  him  with  false  hopes,  till  he 
was  almost  ruined. 

28.  At  this  crisis,  a  boy  came  secretly 
to  him,  and  told  him  that  the  men  were 
deceiving  him  ;  that  ore  had  been  found, 
and  was  hid  up  from  him.  Mr.  Lothian 
perceived  the  depth  of  their  roguery;  they 
intended  to  ruin  him,  and  then  hoped  to 
take  the  affair  on  themselves,  at  a  low 
rate.  Tlie  boy  declared  he  should  be  mur- 
dered if  it  were  found  out  that  he  had 
given  this  information. 

29.  Lothian  encouraged  the  boy,  and 
told  liiin,  that  the  next  morning  he  would 
come  into  the  mine  as  usual,  and  finding 
the  boy  idle,  he  would  scold  him.  It  was 
agreed  that  the  boy  should  feign  to  be  in 
a  passion  at  being  scolded,  and  should,  as 
in  anger,  throw  down  his  tools  as  near 
the  place  where  the  ore  had  been  found 
as  possibl"*:  this  was  done  accordingly. 
He  strucl  the  boy  for  his  idleness,  and 
the  boy,  ii  apparent  anger,  threw  down 
his  tools,  an  J  declared  he  would  work  for 
him  no  longer. 

30.  Lothian  marked  the  spot,  without 
seeming  to  notice  it.  He  began  talking 
with  the  men  as  usual,  and  received  the 
usual  answers.  At  length,  he  took  up 
a  pickaxe,  and  began  striking  here  and 
there,  carelessly,  till  by  degrees  he  cam9 


to  the  proper  place  ;   when  he  soon  dis- 
covered  the    ore,  and,  as  if  greatly  sur- 

;  26.  What  of  the   ore  of  lead  ?    27—30.    What 
:  is  the  story  about   Lothian  and  the  workmen  •' 


USEFUL    METALS. 


87 


prised,  called  all  the  men  to  examine  if 
this  were  not  the  right  place  to  work  at. 
They  were  loth  to  own  it ;  but,  as  he  con- 
tiniU3d  picking,  they  were  obliged  to  see, 
and  at  his  command  they  dug  deeper. 
When  they  could  resist  the  discovery  no 
longer,  they  affected  to  wonder  how  they 
could  have  worked  so  near,  and  not 
found  it  before.  The  ore  proved  to  be 
very  rich,  and  he  soon  recovered  his 
finances.' 

31.  The  lead  mines  of  the  Mississippi  are 
very  productive.  The  tract  is  more  than 
200  miles  in  extent,  and  contains  inex- 
haustible quantities  of  lead  ore.  The 
chief  mines  are  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Galena  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Illinois. 
Here  are  the  richest  lead  mines  on  the 
globe.  There  are  very  productive  lead 
mines  in  the  neighborhood  of  Potosi,  in 
Missouri.  The  ore  is  found  not  in  veins, 
but  in  detached  masses  from  two  to  twenty 
feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
About  3,000,000  pounds  are  annually 
smelted. 

NICKEL. 

32.  Nickel  is  found  in  different  parts  of 
Germany.  When  perfectly  pure,  it  is  of  a 
fine  white  color,  resembling  silver.  It  is 
more  malleable  than  iron.  It  is  attracted 
by  the  magnet  as  strongly  as  iron,  and 
may  be  converted  into  a  magnet.  Nickel 
is  employed  in  potteries,  and  in  the  manu- 
facturing of  porcelain.  A  beautiful  green 
color  may  be  obtained  from  it. 

ZINC. 

33.  Zinc  is  a  metal  of  a  brilliant  white 
color,  with  a  shade  of  blue,  and  is  com- 
posed of  a  number,  of  thin  plates  adhering 
together.  The  ore  is  often  found  in  great 
quantities,  in  lead  mines. 

MANGANESE. 

34.  Manganese  is  about  seyen  times 
heavier  than  water.     Its  color  is  a  rusty 


31.  What  of  the  lead  mines  of  the  Mississippi.' 
How  is  the  ore  found  .'    32.  Nickel .'    33.  Ziitc  ? 


gray.  It  is  brittle,  in  a  slight  degree  mal- 
leable, and  is  never  found  pure.  It  is 
used  in  glass-making,  and  a  beautiful  violet 
color  is  obtained  from  it,  which  is  employ- 
ed in  painting  porcelain. 

ARSENIC. 

35.  Arsenic  is  a  metal  of  a  light  lead- 
blue  color.  It  is  a  substance  of  very  fre- 
quent occurrence,  being  found  in  combina- 
tion with  almost  every  other  metal,  as  well 
as  with  sulphur  and  lime.  Arsenic  is  one 
of  the  most  active  of  mineral  poisons,  and 
a  very  small  quantity  of  it  is  able  to  de- 
stroy life.  It  is  also  sometimes  used  as  a 
medicine,  and,  when  judiciously  employed, 
is  capable  of  producing  the  most  powerful 
and  beneficial  effects.  Arsenic  is  much 
employed  in  the  arts.  It  is  used  in  glaz- 
ing porcelain,  and  the  manufacture  of 
glass.  It  is  also  much  used  in  the  com- 
position of  paint. 

ANTIMONY. 

36.  Antimony  is  a  substance  separated 
by  fusion  from  a  very  hard  and  heavy 
lead-colored  metal,  which  has  a  sparkling 
appearance  when  freshly  broken.  It  is 
employed  in  medicine  and  in  coloring 
glass.  It  is  also  used  in  the  composition 
of  type-metal. 

COBALT. 

37.  The  weight  of  this  metal  is  about 
eight  times  that  of  water :  its  color  is  gray 
with  a  tinge  of  red,  and  it  is  very  difficult 
of  fusion.  It  is  attracted  by  the  magnet, 
and  a  beautiful  blue  color  may  be  obtain- 
ed from  it.  The  solution  of  muriate  of 
cobalt  affords  a  celebrated  sympathetic 
ink.  When  much  diluted,  if  letters  are 
traced  with  it  on  paper,  and  allowed  to 
dry,  they  are  invisible ;  but  when  the 
paper  is  exposed  to  a  moderate  heat,  they 
appear  of  a  lively  green.  They  disappear 
again  \when  cold,  but  by  a  very  strong  hea» 
they  may  be  rendered  permanent. 


34.   Manganese 
S7.  Cobalt? 


35    Arsenic .'    36.  Antimony  ' 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


CHAP.  XXIV. 

COAL. 

1.  Coal  appears,  in  some  cases,  to  have 
been  originally  vegetable  matter,  and,  by 
long  burial  in  the  earth,  to  have  been 
soaked  with  bitumen,  till  its  very  sub- 
stance has  been  changed ;  for  sometimes 
it  has  been  found  but  partially  changed, 
with  the  fibrous  formation  yet  discernible. 
More  commonly,  however,  it  seems  to 
have  been  some  earthy  substance,  thus 
impregnated  and  changed,  by  petroleum, 
or  some  oily  matter. 

2.  England  is  highly  favored  by  this 
kind  provision  of  fuel,  suited  to  her  cold 
climate,  and  especially  necessary  for  a 
manufacturing  country.  For  ages,  in- 
deed, wood  was  the  only  kind  of  firing  in 
use ;  and  as  the  island  was  anciently  so 
much  covered  with  timber,  the  commodity 
did  not  become  scarce.  As,  however,  pop- 
ulation increased,  and  corn  was  wanted, 
the  forests  were  cut  down,  and  the  land 
brought  into  culture,  so  that  in  some  dis- 
tricts fuel  became  scarce  and  dear. 

3.  In  countries  where  coal  abounds,  it 
was  impossible  but  some  particles,  at  least, 
must  have  been  washed  out  of  the  earth 
by  the  floods.  This  takes  place  to  the 
present  day.  That  these  black  stones 
would  burn  was  the  next  discovery,  and 
searching  for  them  was  as  natural,  when 
wood  became  difficult  to  procure. 

4.  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  in  Northum- 
berland, is  a  principal  coal  country.  Hen- 
ry III.  gave  the  inhabitants  the  first  char- 
ter for  digging  coal,  about  the  year  1239. 
They  were,  however,  forbidden  to  be 
brought  to  London  at  one  time,  till  the 
destruction  of  the  woods  about  the  city 
rendered  some  other  supply  of  fuel  neces- 
sary. At  present,  the  quantity  is  very 
great :    in    the  year  1800,  eight  hundred 


1.  What  of  coal  ?   2.  What  country  particular 
jy  abounds  in  this  substance  ?    4.  What  of  New-  j 


and  sixty-six  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
ten  chaldrons  were  brought  to  London. 
A  chaldron  contains  thirty-six  bushels. 
The  quantity  increases  every  year,  and 
fully  keeps  pace  with  the  great  increase 
of  houses. 

5.  That  the  various  substances  under- 
neath the  soil  lie  all  in  strata,  has  fre- 
quently been  stated.  Coal  is  found  in  this 
mannir.  Sometimes  the  stratum  is  many 
feet  thick,  sometimes  not  more  than  six 
inches.  When  lOund,  it  is  followed,  and 
though  thin  at  first,  it  soon  becomes  more 
profitable.  In  following  the  vein  of  coal, 
the  miners  are  obliged  to  go  far  into  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  and  sometimes  to 
great  depths. 

6.  The  coal  mjnes  at  Whitehaven  in 
England  are  very  wonderful.  You  enter 
at  the  bottom  of  a  hill,  and  pass  an 
amazingly  long  way  among  huge  galle- 
ries, where  the  roof  is  propped  up  by  vast 
pillars  of  coal,  left  for  that  purpose,  nine 
leet  high,  and  thirty-six  feet  thick.  The 
mines  sink  to  the  depth  of  seven  or  eight 
hundred  feet.  They  run  under  the  sea  to 
a  great  extent ;  so  that  large  ships  sail 
over  the  miners'  heads.  The  stratum  of 
coal  is  always  inclined,  or  dips  as  they  call 
it ;  and  frequently  the  miners  have  to  sink, 
or  to  rise,  a  hundred  feet,  or  more,  to  find 
the  remainder  of  a  broken  vein.  These 
breaks  appear  to  be  the  consequence  of 
some  violent  concussion  of  the  earth,  by 
which  the  vein  of  coal  is  cast  up,  or  down, 
out  of  the  regular  course  ;  such  a  break  is? 
called  a  dyke. 

7.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  coal- 
works  was  at  Borrowstoness,  in  Scotland. 
The  vein  of  coal  went  under  an  arm  of 
the  sea,  till  it  reached  a  spot  half  a  mila 
from  the  shore;  this  was  formed  into  a 
quay,  for   an  entrance,  as    coming   more 


castle-upon-Tyne .?    5.  How  is  coal  found.?    6. 
The  coal  mines  at  Whitehaven  .=•     7.   Borrow 


89 


\:^^^B 

^^^M 

J^P^ 

Wl^^m 

i^^B 

^^ 

■aasiS^'^^^a^'^  -^- .  L^ii±:'.-  ^ 

^S^^^'^'.^f'^^^^^A^'' '    ■•--~- 

[      :' '  ?^^K^^  ^  •  <^^ 

light  passed  through  this  wire  work  readi- 
ly, the  fire  damp  lodged  on  the  outside 
and  was  perfectly  harmless.  This  is  a 
very  important  safeguard  to  the  miners  ; 


immediately  upon  the  works ;  the  coal 
was  laid  there,  and  shipping  could  come 
close,  and  take  them  in.  Fresh  water 
sprang  from  the  bottom  of  the  mine,  and 
was  pumped  out,  from  a  depth  of  240 
feet.  It  was  a  wonderful  work,  and  was 
wrought  to  great  advantage  for  many 
years.  At  last,  an  extraordinarily  high 
tide  rose  above  the  mouth  of  the  coal- 
pit, and  drowned  the  whole  concern,  with 
all  who  were  then  at  work  in  it. 

8.  Besides  the  general  gloominess  of 
working  so  far  under  ground,  the  miners 
are  liable  to  several  dangerous  accidents. 
Foul  air,  which  suffocates  and  kills ;  and 
the  fire  damp,  which  catches,  if  any  flame 
comes  near  it,  and  explodes  like  a  volcano, 
and  burns  for  a  long  while,  even  for  many 
months  or  years.  As  this  foulness  takes 
fire  only  from  flame,  a  machine  was  in- 
vented which  produced  a  stream  of  sparks, 
by  a  wheel  of  flints  striking  against  steel ; 
which  glimmering  light  sufficed  for  the 
workmen. 

9.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  afterwards  dis- 
covered, that  the  foul  air  was  too  thick  to 
pass  between  close  iron  wires ;  he  there- 
fore invented  a  lamp  to  be  enclosed  in  a 
case  of  wire  gauze ;   so  that  although  the 


for  the  accidents  have  been  tremendous 
and  destructive.  Yet,  because  the  light  is 
not  so  strong  when  enclosed  in  this  kind 
of  wire  lantern  as  without,  they  will  fre- 
quently lay  the  safety  screen  aside,  at  the 
hazard  of  their  lives ;  and  dreadful  conse- 
quences have  ensued. 

10.  After  the  coal  has  been  brought  to 
the  surface  in  baskets,  it  must  then  be  con- 
veyed to  the  water-side  for  shipping.  Fre- 
quently, therefore,  railroads  are  construct- 
ed, from  the  mouth  of  the  pit,  to  the  edge 
of  the  water.  These  consist  of  grooves 
of  wood  or  of  iron,  in  which  the  wagon 
wheels  move  so  easily,  that  one  horse  will 
draw  as  much  as  six  without  such  a  con 
trivance ;  and,  if  the  slope  be  sufficient, 
the    loaded    wagons    will    run    down    by 


themselves,  till  they  come  to  the  appointed 
place.  Then,  a  pin  opens  a  trap  door  in 
the  bottom  of  the  wagon,  and  lets  the 
coals  fall  out,  through  a  tunnel,  into  the 
ship  itself.  The  empty  wagons  are  drawn 
up  another  railroad,  by  the  side  of  the  de- 
scending one,  by  the  weight  and  force  of 
other  loaded  wagons,  which  are  coming 
down. 

11.  Sometimes  large  barges,  called  feceZ^, 
are  employed  to  take  the  coals  from  the 
wagons  to  the  ships,  when  the  ships  draw 
too  much  water  to  come  far  enough  up 
the  river,  to  meet  the  wagons. 

12.  Cokt  is  coal  burnt,  or  rather  baked, 


Fioiiess.''    8.  To  what  accidents  are  the  miners  j]  liable .''  9.  What  did  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  invent  ? 


90 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


in  a  sort  of  oven  ;  it  thus  becomes  charred, 
and  will  burn  afterwards  without  smoke, 
but  fiercely.  In  the  burning  of  coke,  a 
sort  of  tar  arises,  which  is  carefully  pre- 
served, and  is  very  useful.  Also,  the  hy- 
drogen gas,  disengaged  in  the  process, 
may  be  caught ;  and  when  purified,  it 
feeds  the  lamps  which  burn  so  brilliantly. 

13.  Some  coal  is  so  compact,  that  it  is 
turned  into  toys,  snuff-boxes,  &c.  This 
is  called  Cannel  coal ;  and  is  found  in 
England  and  different  parts  of  Scotland. 

14.  Anthracite  is  the  name  of  one  of 
the  most  useful  kinds  of  coal.  It  has  been 
found  in  several  European  countries,  but 
occurs  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  has  become  an  ar- 
ticle of  great  importance.  This  coal  is  in- 
flammable with  some  difficulty,  and  burns 
without  smell  or  smoke. 

15.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  anthracite  coal 
formation  covers  a  tract  of  country  many 
miles  in  width.  Mauch  Chunk,  upon  the 
Lehigh,  Pottsville,  at  the  head  of  the 
Schuylkill  canal,  and  Wilkesbarre,  upon 
the  Susquehannah,  have  afforded  the  chief 
supply  of  coal  from  this  region,  as  well  as 
the  greatest  proportion  consumed  in  the 
United  States.     Much  of  this  coal  is  trans- 


t^^-^-^l 


ported  from  the  mines  by  means  of  rail- 
roads. 


10.  11.  How  is  the  coal  sometimes  shipped?  12. 
What  is  coke  ?  13.  Cannel  coal?  14.  What  of 
anthracite  ?  15.  Pennsylvania  coal  ?  16.  Mention^, 


16.  At  Portsmouth,  in  Rhode  Island 
an  extensive  bed  of  this  coal  exists ;  and 
a  mine  of  anthracite  has  been  opened  at 
W^orcester,  in  Massachusetts,  at  the  head 
of  the  Blackstone  canal. 

17.  The  names  given  to  coal  are  various, 
and  are  generally  taken  from  the  placen 
where  it  is  found.  Most  of  the  bitumin 
ous  coal  consumed  in  the  eastern  states, 
is  exported  from  Liverpool ;  although  con 
siderable  quantities  are  brought  from  Nova 
Scotia,  called  Pictou  and  Sydney  coal. 

CHAP.  XXV. 

GRANITE,  MARBLE,  &c. 

GRANITE. 

1.  Granite  is  a  very  hard  rough  kind 
of  stone,  so  called  from  being  sprinkled 
over  with  a  great  many  little  stains,  that 
resemble  grains  of  sand.  It  is  considered 
as  the  foundation  rock  of  the  globe,  or 
that  upon  which  all  secondary  rocks  repose. 
Granite  occurs  in  masses  of  vast  thickness, 
which  are  commonly  divided,  by  fissures, 
into  blocks. 

2.  There  are  various  kinds  of  granite, 
and  it  occurs  of  different  degrees  of  hard- 
ness. In  Russia  may  be  seen  immense 
pillars  of  solid  granite,  which  have  re- 
ceived a  polish  nearly  equal  to  that  which 
may  be  imparted  to  fine  marble. 

3.  Granite  is  found  abundantly  distri- 
buted through  New  England  and  other 
parts  of  the  United  States.  The  most 
celebrated  quarries  in  Massachusetts,  are 
those  of  Chelmsford  and  Quincy,  which 
have  supplied  the  materials  for  the  finest 
structures  in  Boston  and  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

4.  The  Portland  stone  of  England  is  in 
high  repute.  It  is  sometimes  called  free- 
stone, because   it  works  freely,  cuts  any 


some  other  places  where  coal  exists.    17.  What 
of  the  names  given  to  coal .'' 

1.  What  of  granite  ?  2.  Are  there  various  kind* 


GRANITE,    MARBLE,    &C. 


91 


way,  and  is  not  apt  to  split,  as  many  other 
stones  do. 

5.  The  Isle  of  Portland,  as  it  is  called, 
is  a  long  narrow  peninsula,  on  the  coast 
of  Dorsetshire.  The  whole  slip  of  land 
is,  as  it  were,  one  single  rock,  surrounded 
with  a  vast  ledge  of  rocks,  stretching  into 
the  sea,  and  making  the  place  as  impreg- 
nable as  any  fortification  could  do.  Here 
are  quarries,  which  have  been  dug  for 
many  years,  and  have  been  famous  even 


^bwifeiiiiM 

fe 

A^^M 

-Mfa^^l 

fi^ 

t^lKS^^^H 

i^^^^^^^^H^iE™i.i!l  ^ 

i^9 

m 

^S^^^ 

since  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  finest 
structures  are  built  with  this  stone  ;  and  it 
is  calculated,  that  nine  thousand  tons  of 
it  are  used  every  year.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  whiteness  and  durability.  The 
blocks  are  frequently  very  large,  and  the 
removal  of  them  is  very  difficult. 
MARBLE. 

6.  Marble  is  a  kind  of  stone  composed 
chiefly  of  lime.  It  is  found  of  a  great 
variety  of  colors,  and  is  of  so  hard,  com- 
pact and  fine  a  texture,  as  readily  to  take 
a  beautiful  polish. 

7.  The  marble  most  esteemed  by  statu- 
aries is  that  which  is  brought  from  the 
island  of  Paros,  situate  in  the  Archipelago  ; 
this  was  the  species  of  marble  employed 
by  the  prince  of  sculptors,  Praxiteles,  and 
by  Phidias,  both  of  whom  were  natives  of 
that  island.  The  Parian  marble  hardens 
by  exposure  to  the  air,  which  enables  it  to 


of  this  substance  ?   3.  Where  is  it  found  ?    4.5. 
What  of  Portland  stone  ?   6.  Marble  ?    7.  What 


resist  decomposition  for  ages.  Its  color  is 
snow-white ;  and  when  polished,  it  has 
something  of  a  waxy  appearance.  It 
receives  with  great  accuracy  the  most 
delicate  touches  of  the  chisel. 

8.  Although  the  United  States  are 
known  to  be  rich  in  marbles,  hitherto 
very  little  pains  have  been  taken  to  ex- 
plore them.  The  quarries  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, which  are  distant  about  20  miles 
from  Philadelphia,  afford  a  handsome  mar- 
ble. A  similar  variety  is  also  quarried 
in  Thomaston,  Maine.  Beautiful  white 
marble  is  abundant  in  Massachusetts ;  it 
is  extensively  wrought  at  Lanesborough, 
Lenox  and  Stockbridge.  The  verd  antique 
of  New  Haven  is  said  to  be  the  rarest  and 
most  beautiful  marble  yet  discovered  in 
the  United  States.  The  quarries,  though 
believed  to  be  inexhaustible,  are  not 
wrought  at  present. 

SLATE. 

9.  Slate  is  a  fossil  or  compact  stone  that 
may  be  split  into  plates.  There  are  sev 
eral  varieties  of  this  mineral,  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished by  their  color,  which  is  in  gen- 
eral gray,  intermixed  with  blue,  green  or 
black  streaks.  There  are  very  valuable 
slate  quarries  in  Maine,  and  other  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  principal  use  of 
slates  is  in  the  covering  of  houses,  for 
which  they  are  well  adapted.  Slate  is) 
also  extensively  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  writing,  after  its  surface  has  been  prop- 
erly smoothed.  \ 

SOAPSTONE. 

10.  Soapstone,  or  steatite,  as  it  is  called 
in  science,  is  a  substance  so  soft  that  it 
may  be  easily  cut  by  a  knife,  and  in  most 
cases  scratched  by  the  nail.  It  is  a  com- 
pound of  silica,  magnesia,  alumina,  oxide 
of  iron,  and  water.  It  is  somewhat  oily 
to  the  touch,  and  is  often  mixed  with  talc, 
asbestos  &c.    Common  steatite  occurs  in 

is  the  most  esteemed  marble  ?    8.  What  of  mar- 
ble in  the  United  States  ?    9.   What  of  slate  ? 
r2 


n 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


masses  or  veins,  or  small  beds.  The  soap- 
etone  of  Springfield,  in  Massachusetts,  and 
Francistown  in  New  Hampshire,  appears 
to  be  composed  chiefly  of  talc. 

11.  Steatite  is  not  susceptible  of  a  very 
fine  polish,  but  its  softness  and  its  property 
of  becoming  hard  by  heat,  render  it  a  use- 
ful mineral  in  the  arts.  It  is  employed  for 
the  hearths  of  furnaces,  the  sides  of  fire- 
places and  stoves  &c.  It  has  even  been 
used  for  the  purpose  of  engraving ;  for 
being  easily  cut  when  soft,  it  may  be  made 
to  assume  any  form,  and  afterwards  ren- 
dered hard  by  heat.  Steatite  may  be  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  It  also 
forms  the  basis  of  some  preparations  of 
paint,  and  enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  greater  number  of  the  balls  which  are 
employed  for  cleaning  silks  and  woollen 
cloths. 

LIME. 

12.  Lime  is  one  of  those  earthy  sub- 
stances which  exist  in  every  part  of  the 
known  world.  It  is  found  purest  in  lime- 
stone, marble,  and  chalk.  No  one  of  these 
substances  is  lime,  but  they  become  so 
when  burned  in  a  severe  heat.  Lime  is 
employed  principally  as  mortar  in  build- 
ing, and  as  a  manure  to  fertilize  lands. 
Vast  quantities  of  it  are  used  for  these  pur- 
poses. It  is  also  much  used  by  tanners  in 
the  preparation  of  their  leather ;  by  soap- 
makers  for  dissolving  the  oil,  and  by 
sugar-bakers,  for  refining  their  sugar.  It 
is  likewise  of  some  medicinal  use. 

13.  Various  parts  of  the  United  States 
produce  lime  in  great  abundance.  It  is 
very  plentiful  at  Thomaston  and  Camden 
in  Maiije,  wliere  it  is  burnt  in  great  quan- 
tities for  exportation.  The  limestone  ca- 
verns of  the  western  states  contain  a 
profusion  of  this  substance.  Chloride  of 
lime  may  be  obtained  from  common  lime 
by  a  very  simple  chemical  process. 


10.  11.  Soapstone?    12.  What  of  lime.?    13.  Lime 
in  the  United  States  ? 


.  CHAP.  XXVI. 

WOODS. 

OAK. 

1.  In  point  of  strength,  durability,  auA 
general  use,  oak  claims  precedence  of  al 
timber.  More  than  eighty  species  of  thi. 
tree  are  known,  of  which  one  half  inhabi 
North  America,  either  within  the  territor) 
of  the  United  States,  or  on  the  mountains 
of  Mexico. 

2.  The  white  oak  is  one  of  the  mosJ 
valuable  of  our  forest  trees.  It  attains 
the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  wit! 
a  trunk  six  or  seven  feet  in  diameter.  It 
abounds  in  the  New  England  States,  bu( 
is  most  plentiful  in  Virginia  and  the  mid- 
dle States.  Among  the  great  variety  of 
uses  to  which  this  wood  is  api)lied,  the 
most  important  is  ship-building.  It  is  also 
extensively  employed  by  the  wheelwright, 
and  is  used  for  the  hoops  of  sieves,  whip- 
handles,  &c.  White  oak' timber  is  export- 
ed in  immense  quantities  from  the  ports 
of  the  northern  and  middle  states. 

3.  The  European  oak  is  said  to  be 
tougher  and  more  lasting  than  that  of 
America.  The  knotty  oak  of  England, 
the  '  unwedgeable  and  gnarled  oak,'  as 
Shakspeare  called  it,  affords  superior  tim- 
ber. England  seems  to  have  abounded  in 
oak  forests,  although  they  have  now  be- 
come scarce.  Oaks  have  been  dug  up  in 
some  places,  buried  a  hundred  feet  deep 
in  the  earth  ;  their  branches  were  all  on 
them,  and  the  wood  had  become  so  hard 
that  no  tool  could  cut  it. 

4.  The  live  oak  is  a  tree  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  United  States.  The  leaves 
are  evergreen ;  and  the  wood  is  admira- 
bly calculated  for  ship-building.  Its  dura- 
bility surpasses  that  of  the  European  oak. 
The  live  oak  is  found  along  the  coast  of 
the  United  States  from  latitude  37°  to  the 


1.  What  of  oak  ?  2.  The  white  oak  ?  3.  Europe 
an  oak  ?    4.  The  live  oak .'    5.  The  uses  of  oak 


93 


shores  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Measures 
have  been  taken  by  government  for  the 
preservation  and  improvement  of  live  oak 
plantations. 

5.  Besides  the  uses  of  oak  in  building 
either  ships  or  houses,  much  use  is  made 
of  every  part  of  it.  In  Europe,  the  bark 
by  its  astringent  qualities,  is  the  main  de- 
pendence of  the  tanner.  To  the  dyer,  the 
saw-dust  affords  the  means  of  tinging  his 
cloths  ;  and  the  acorns  fatten  pigs. 

FINE. 

6.  About  thirty  species  of  pine  are 
known,  of  which  nearly  one-half  inhabit 
North  America.  Norway  furnishes  im- 
mense quantities  of  this  wood,  and  the 
whole  country,  especially  the  bleak  moun- 
tainous parts,  may  be  called  one  forest, 
chiefly  of  the  fir  or  pine-tree. 

7.  Norway  has  some  mines,  but  the 
forests  afford  its  chief  riches.  Immense 
sums  are  obtained  from  other  nations,  to 
purchase  this  convenient  and  useful  tree,  m 
its  various  shapes.  Some  straight  whole 
trees  are  useful  as  masts  for  shipping,  or 
for  beams  in  houses.    Young  straight  trees 


are  called  halks,  and  are  split  to  malte 
ladders.  What  are  called  deals^  are  large 
planks,  perhaps  twenty  feet  long,  from 
nine  inches  to  a  foot  broad,  and  three 
inches  thick.  If  not  above  five  inches 
wide,  they  are  called  battens. 


6.  What  of  pine?  7.  Norway?  8.  The  fir-trees  of 
Norway?  9.  Saw  mills?   10.  By  what  facilities  is 


8.  The  soil  of  Norway  seems  to  suit 
the  fir  tribes.  The  seeds,  scattered  every 
where,  fall  into  chinks  and  crevices  in  the 
rocks,  where  they  appear  to  grow  more 
luxuriantly  than  in  any  plainer  spot.  It  is 
well  it  is  so ;  otherwise,  the  amazing  de- 
struction which  takes  place  in  felling  tim- 
ber every  year,  must  have  cut  up  the 
whole  country  long  ago.  Were  you  to 
visit  some  of  the  ports  of  Norway,  you 
would  see  such  mountainous  piles  of  deals, 
that  you  would  suppose  it  could  never  all 
be  used. 

9.  An  immense  number  of  saw-mills 
are  kept  in  motion.  The  tree  is  brought 
to  the  saw,  by  machinery,  and  kept  in  its 
place  ;  so  that  it  is  cut  with  great  accuracy 
and  expedition.  Many  families  are  em- 
ployed in  the  different  branches  of  this 
national  concern ;  as  felling  the  timber 
floating  it  down  to  the  places  of  exporta 
tion,  and  sawing  it  out  into  deals. 

10.  Norway  is  much  intersected  with 
lakes,  and  long  arms  of  the  sea.  By  these 
assistances  the  timber  is  floated,  with  com- 
parative ease,  to  its  destination.  These 
streams  also  supply  the  sawmills,  and  keep 
them  in  motion  by  their  various  falls  of 
water. 

11.  Christiana  is  a  principal  port,  from 
which  the  timber  is  exported ;  it  is  seated 
at  the  bottom  of  a  gulf,  opposite  the  north- 
ern point  of  Denmark,  and  is  a  beautiful 
spot  in  the  summer  time.  Drontheim  also 
has  a  considerable  export  trade  in  timber  ; 
this  port  is  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
Northern  Sea. 

12.  The  red  Canadian  pine  inhabits  the 
whole  of  Canada  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  and  is  also  found  in  the  northern 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States, 
The  trunk  rises  to  the  height  of  70  or  80 
feet,  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  uni- 
form size    for    two    thirds    of  its    length. 


the  timber  floated?   11.  Christiana?    12.  The  red 
Canadian  pine  ?    13.  The  yellow  pine?    14.  The 


94 


BOUK    OF    COMMERCE. 


The  wood  is  compact  and  fine-grained, 
rendered  heavy  by  resinous  matter,  and  is 
highly  esteemed  for  its  strength  and  dura- 
bility. In  the  British  provinces  and  in 
Maine,  it  is  frequently  employed  in  naval 
architecture,  especially  for  the  decks  of 
vessels,  furnishing  j)lanks  free  from  knots, 
of  forty  feet  in  length.  It  is  exported  to 
Great  Britain  both  .from  Maine  and  the  St. 
Lawrence. 

13.  The  true  yellow  pine  is  widely 
spread  over  the  United  States.  On  the 
south-western  part  of  the  Alleghany 
mountains,  and  the  surrounding  country, 
it  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  forests, 
abounding  on  the  most  barren  soil.  The 
trunk  rises  to  the  height  of  fifty  or  sixty 
feet.  Immense  quantities  are  used  in 
the  building  of  ships,  and  in  some  districts 
houses  are  entirely  constructed  of  it.  The 
boards  are  exported  to  Great  Britain  and 
the  West  Indies. 

14.  The  pitch  pine  inhabits  the  northern 
and  middle  sections  of  the  Union,  and  does 
not  appear  to  exist  in  the  western  or  lower 
parts  of  the  Southern  States.  It  is  most 
abundant  along  the  Atlantic  coast;  where 
the  soil  is  diversified,  but  generally  meagre. 

15.  The  loblolly,  or  old  field  pine  is  found 
throughout  the  lower  parts  of  the  Southern 
States.  It  often  exceeds  80  feet  in  height 
and  has  a  wide  spreading  summit.  The 
long-leaved  pine  is,  perhaps,  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  our  forest  trees.  Not  only 
does  it  furnish  all  the  resin,  tar,  pitch  and 
turpentine  consumed  in  the  United  States, 
but  the  timber  is  valuable  and  enduring. 
The  resinous  products  are  of  six  sorts ; 
turpentine,  scrapings,  spirits  of  turpentine, 
resin,  tar  and  pitch.  The  two  first  are  de- 
livered in  their  natural  state,  but  the  others 
are  modified  by  the  agency  of  fire. 

16.  The  turpentine  is  the  sap  obtained 
by  snaking   incisions   into  the  trunk,  and 


the  scrapings  consist  merely  of  the  turpec 
tine  which   becomes   hardened   before  i* 


1  ""<  k/ 


pitch  pine  ?    15.  The  loblolly  ?    The  long-leaved 
pine  >  16.  What  of  turpentine  ?  Its  exportation  ? 


reaches  the  boxes  placed  to  receive  it.  In 
general  3000  trees  yield  annually  about 
75  barrels  of  turpentine  and  25  of  scrap- 
ings. Nearly  100,000  barrels  are  exported 
annually  to  the  Northern  States  and  to 
Great  Britain.  Throughout  the  United 
States,  it  is  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  yellow  soap. 

17.  Great  quantities  of  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine are  made  in  North  Carolina,  and 
about  20,000  gallons  are  exported  annual- 
ly to  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  to 
England  and  to  France.  All  the  tar  is 
made  from  the  dead  wood ;  and  this  ia 
supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  its  inferiority 
to  the  tar  of  the  north  of  Europe,  which 
is  made  from  trees  reoently  felled.  Pitch 
is  tar  reduced  by  evaporation. 

18.  The  white  pine  is  the  loftiest  tree 
in  the  United  States,  and  its  timber  is 
used  in  much  greater  quantities,  and  for  a 
greater  variety  of  purposes  than  any  other. 
Throughout  the  Northern  States,  three 
fourths  of  the  houses  are  almost  wholly 
of  white  pine.  It  is  also  much  used  for 
masts  of  vessels,  and  much  of  it  is  export- 
ed for  that  purpose. 

19.  The  persons  engaged  in  procuring 
white  pine  lumber,  after  having  previously 
ascertained  where  the  trees  abound,  enter 


17.  Spirits  of  turpentine  ?   18.  What  of  the  whita 
pine .'    19.  The  persons  engaged  in  procuring  it 


WOODS. 


95 


the  forests  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  and 
establish  themselves  in  huts  covered  usu- 
ally with  birch  bark,  although  the  cold  is 
frequently  most  intense.  When  the  trees 
fire  felled  and  cut  into  logs,  they  drag  them, 
by  means  of  their  cattle,  to  the  nearest 
fiver,  after  fixing  upon  them  a  mark  of  pro- 
jperty.  At  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice,  the 
k)gs  float  down  the  current  till  they  arrive 
*r.  their  destination.  If  stripped  of  their 
(bark,  logs  will  remain  uninjured  for  many 
years ;  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  decay. 

20.  Maine  furnishes  nearly  three  fourths 
4)f  all  the  white  pine  lumber  exported 
from  the  United  States;  and  next  to  Maine 
the  shores  of  lake  Champlain  seem  most  to 
abound  in  it.  The  wood  is  formed  into 
clapboards,  shingles  &c.,  which  are  sent 
in  great  quantities  to  the  West  Indies. 

21.  Pine  forests  are  extremely  liable 
to  be  frequently  ravaged  by  fire ;  and  it 
is  very  difficult  to  arrest  the  flames 
when  they  have  once  seized  upon  them. 
In  some  parts  of  France,  the  following 
method  is  practised  with  success: — If  a 
fire  break  out  in  the  forest,  a  second  is 
kindled  at  a  point  directly  opposite,  when 
a  current  of  air  sets  from  the  first  to  the 
second,  which  carries  the  flames  to  a  com- 
mon centre,  leaving  the  surrounding  woods 
uninjured. 

CORK-TREE. 

22.  The  cork-tree  is  a  species  of  oak, 
which  flourishes  in  Spain.  There  is  a 
large  wood  of  cork  trees  near  the  top  of 
mount  Etna,  in  Sicily.  Indeed,  in  France, 
and  in  all  the  south  of  Europe,  it  abounds. 

23.  The  trees  must  be  fifteen  years  old, 
before  their  bark  is  fit  to  be  peeled.  They, 
may  then  yield  it  six  or  eight  years  suc- 
cessively. The  bark  is  cut  lengthwise 
from  the  trees,  from  top  to  bottom,  and  all 
around  it  also.    The  bark  is  stripped  from 


20.  What  does  Maine  furnish  ?  21.  What  of  the 
liability  of  pine  forests  to  be  destroyed  by  fire  .■' 
22.  What  of  thecoi;k-tree  ■  23.  How  old  must  the 


the  tree ;  yet  the  tree  does  not  die,  be 
cause  the  new  bark,  which  comes  every 
year,  would  push  the  former  one  off,  were 
it  not  stripped  in  this  manner.  The 
sheets  of  bark  are  put  under  water,  and 
made  flat  by  heavy  weights  put  on  them 
while  soaking.  It  is  afterwards  dried,  and 
then  becomes  fit  for  use. 

24.  It  comes  over  to  us  in  broad  pieces, 
four  or  five  feet  long,  and  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  wide.  The  cork  cutters, 
(for  it  is  n  business  by  itself,)  with  very 
sharp  knives,  cut  it  into  proper  lengths, 
and  round  it  fit  for  use.  The  best  sort, 
which  are  tolerably  free  from  veins  and 
cracks,  are  soft  and  pliable,  and  are  called 
velvet  corks.  Good  cork  is  very  compres- 
sible, being  very  porous ;  yet,  by  its  elas- 
ticity, it  swells  again,  and  fills  up  the  place 
into  which  it  has  been  forced,  so  complete- 
ly, that  neither  water  nor  air  can  pass 
through  it. 

25.  The  ancient  Romans  and  Greeks 
knew  the  tree,  and  the  bark  was  used  as 
floats  to  fishermen's  nets.  It  was  used 
also  by  the  ladies,  as  soles  to  keep  their 
feet  from  the  wet,  and  to  raise  such  as 
wished  to  appear  taller  than  their  natural 
height.  It  was  used  sometimes  to  stop 
vessels ;  but  not  generally,  for  the  Ro- 
man wine-vessels  had  larger  mouths  than 
a  piece  of  cork  coudd  conveniently  fill. 
Wax,  clay,  pitch,  and  gypsum,  were  pre- 
ferred ;  or  the  upper  part  of  the  vessel  was 
filled  with  oil,  or  honey,  to  prevent  the 
air  from  having  access  to  the  Hquor ;  a 
practice  still  common  in  Italy. 

26.  The  invention  of  glass  bottlea 
brought  cork  into  general  use  ;  their  necks 
being  small,  the  cork  suits  them,  and  be- 
comes the  best  sort  of  stopper.  This  was 
not  till  the  fifteenth  century.  The  French 
cork-wood  is  the  best  we  import. 


trees  be  before  their  bark  is  peeled?  24.  How 
does  the  cork  come .''  25.  Was  it  known  by  the 
ancient  Romans  and  Greeks  ?    26.   By  what  in- 


99 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


CEDAR. 

27.  The  cedar  of  mount  Lebanon,  men- 
tioned in  scripture,  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
finest  and  largest  trees  in  the  world.  Its 
wood  is  very  hard,  beautiful,  solid,  inclin- 
ing to  a  reddish  color,  and  incorruptible. 
It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  black  lead 
pencils,  and  affords  an  excellent  material 
for  posts.  Many  of  the  West  India  is- 
lands, particularly  Jamaica,  are  well  stored 
with  cedars.  They  are  likewise  very 
plentiful  in  North  America. 

WALNUT. 

28.  The  common  walnut  is  a  very  hand- 
,    some  and  a  very  useful  tree.     The  young 

trees  are  often  made  into  hoops,  and  the 
wood  is  made  into  axe-handles,  and  a 
variety  of  agricultural  instruments.  The 
white  walnut^  or  hickory,  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  where  it  grows  to  be  a 
timber  of  considerable  dimensions.  It  af- 
fords excellent  fuel. 

CHESTNUT. 

29.  The  chestnut-tree  is  met  with  in 
great  abundance  throughout  most  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  very  ornamental 
when  growing,  and  it  makes  very  good 
timber.  Posts  made  of  chestnut  are  said 
to  be  far  more  durable  than  those  of  oaK. 

MAPLE. 

30.  Of  the  maple  there  are  about  thirty- 
six  species,  natives  of  various  countries. 
Six  are  indigenous  to  Europe,  about  twelve 
to  America,  and  the  rest  to  various  parts 
of  Asia.  The  Great  Maple,  called  also 
the  sycamore  and  the  plane-iree,  is  hardy, 
and  grows  rapidly,  and  to  a  great  height. 
The  timber  is  very  close  and  compact, 
easily  cut,  and  of  a  handsome  color.  As 
it  often  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  bears  var- 
nishing well,  it  is  much  used  for  certain 
parts  of  musical  instruments.  Before  the 
general  introduction  of  pottery  ware,  it 
was  the  common  material  for  bowls  and 


vention  was  cork  brought  into  use  ?     27.  What 
3f  cedar?  28.  Walnut .'  29.  Chestnut.?    30.  Ma- 


platters  of  all  sorts ;    and  many  are  stiP. 
made  of  it. 

3L  The  sugar  maple  grows  plentifully 
in  the  United  States ;  and  from  the  sap 
of  it,  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar  is 
made.  The  method  of  obtaining  this  sugar 
has  been  already  described. 
TEAK-TREE. 

32.  The  teak-tree  is  a  native  of  India. 
It  is  used  in  ship-building  like  the  oak. 
and  has  some  resemblance  to  it  in  its  tim- 
ber. It  is  a  tree  of  uncommon  size,  and 
bears  a  hard  nut.  On  the  banks  of  the 
river  Irawaddy,  in  the  Birman  empire,  tho 
teak  forests  are  unrivalled  ;  and  they  rise 
so  far  over  the  jungle  or  brushwood,  by 
which  tropical  forests  are  usually  encum- 
bered, that  they  seem  almost  as  if  one 
forest  were  raised  on  gigantic  poles  over 
the  top  of  another.  Efforts  are  about  to 
be  made  to  raise  this  tree  in  Florida. 

33.  There  are  numerous  other  kinds  of 
trees  useful  either  for  their  timber  or  their 
peculiar  qualities,  which  our  limits  pre- 
vent us  from  enumerating.  In  the  suc- 
ceeding chapter  a  description  of  the  prin- 
cipal ornamental  woods  will  be  given. 

CHAP.  XXVIL 

WOODS  — Continued. 

MAHOGANY. 
1.  The  common  mahogany  is  one  of 
the  most  majestic  trees  in  the  world.  In 
Cuba  and  Honduras,  this  tree,  during  a 
growth  of  two  centuries,  expands  to  such  a 
gigantic  size,  throws  out  such  massive 
arms,  and  spreads  the  shade  of  its  shining 
green  leaves  over  such  a  vast  surface,  that 
even  the  proudest  oaks  of  our  forest  ap- 
pear insignificant  in  comparison  with  it. 
A  single  log  has  oflen  weighed  six  or 
seven  tons,  and  been  sold  for  more  than 
one  thousand  dollars. 


pie?     31.   Sugar  maple?      32.   The   teak -tree . 
1,    What   of  mahogany?     2.   Its    discovery  J* 


WOODS. 


91 


2.  The  discovery  of  this  beautiful  tim- 
ber was  accidental,  and  its  introduction 
into  notice  was  slow.  A  physician  of  the 
name  of  Gibbons,  who  resided  in  London, 
received  in  1724  a  present  of  some  ma- 
hogany planks  from  his  brother,  a  West 
India  captain.  The  Doctor  was  erecting 
a  house,  and  gave  the  planks  to  the  work- 
men, who  rejected  them  as  being  too  hard. 
The  Doctor's  cabinet-maker  was  employed 
to  make  a  candle-box  of  it,  and  as  he  was 
sawing  up  the  plank  he  also  complained 
of  the  hardness  of  the  timber.  But  when 
the  candle-box  was  finished,  it  outshone 
in  beauty  all  the  Doctor's  other  furniture, 
and  became  an  object  of  curiosity  and  ex- 
hibition. The  wood  was  then  taken  into 
favor ;  and  the  despised  mahogany  became 
a  prominent  article  of  luxury  among  the 
rich. 

3.  The  mahogany  tree  is  found  in  great 
quantities  on  the  low  and  woody  lands, 
and  even  upon  the  rocks  in  the  countries 
on  the  western  shores  of  the  Caribbean 
sea,  about  Honduras  and  Campeachy.  It 
is  also  abundant  in  the  islands  of  Cuba 
and  Hayti,  and  it  used  to  be  plentiful  in 
Jamaica,  where  it  was  of  excellent  quality ; 
but  most  of  the  larger  trees  have  been  cut 
down. 

4.  The  season  for  cutting  the  mahogany 
in  Honduras  usually  commences  about  the 
month  of  August.  The  gangs  of  laborers 
employed  in  this  work  consist  of  from 
twenty  to  fifty  each,  but  few  exceed  the 
latter  number.  They  are  composed  of 
slaves  and  free  persons,  and  each  gang  has 
one  person  belonging  to  it  termed  the 
huntsman.  His  chief  occupation  is  to 
search  the  woods,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the 
bush,  to  find  labor  for  the  whole. 

5.  Accordingly,  about  the  beginning 
of  August,  the  huntsman  is  despatched  on 
his  important  mission.     He  cuts  his  way 


3.  Where  is  it  found  ?    4.  When  is  the  season 
for  cutting  ?    5.  How  are  the  trees  selected  ?  6. 


through  the  thickest  of  the  woods  to  some 
elevated  situation,  and  climbs  the  tallest 
tree  he  finds,  from  which  he  minutely  sur- 
veys the  surrounding  country.  At  this 
season  the  leaves  of  the  mahogany  tree 
are  invariably  of  a  yellow  reddish  hue,  and 
an  eye  accustomed  to  this  kind  of  exer- 
cise can,  at  a  great  distance,  discern  the 
places  where  the  wood  is  most  abundant. 

6.  He  now  descends,  and  directs  his 
steps  to  the  spot  which  he  may  have  se- 
lected. Having  reached  it  with  his  party, 
the  next  operation  is  the  felling  of  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  trees  to  employ  the 
gang  during  the  season.  The  mahogany 
tree  is  commonly  cut  about  ten  or  twelve 
feet  from  the  ground,  a  stage  being  erected 
for  the  axe-man  employed  in  levelling  it. 
The  trunk  of  the  tree,  from  the  dimensions 
of  the  wood,  is  generally  preferred  ;  but,  for 
ornamental  purposes,  the  limbs  or  branches 
are  generally  preferred. 

7.  A  sufficient  number  of  trees  being 
felled  to  occupy  the  gang  during  the  sea- 
son,  they  commence  cutting  the  roads  upon 
which  they  are  to  be  transported.  This 
may  fairly  be  estimated  at  two-thirds  of 
the  labor  and  expense  of  mahogany  cut- 
ting. Each  mahogany  work  forms  in  it- 
self a  small  village  on  the  banks  of  a  river, 
and  the  nearer  the  trees  grow  to  the  river, 
the  less  difficulty  there  is  in  their  trans- 
portation. 

8.  If  the  mahogany  trees  are  much  dis- 
persed or  scattered,  the  labor  and  extent 
of  road-cutting  are  of  course  greatly  in- 
creased. It  not  unfrequently  occurs  that 
miles  of  road  and  many  bridges  are  made 
to  a  single  tree,  that  may  ultimately  yield 
but  one  log.  When  roads  are  cleared  of 
brush-wood,  they  still  require  the  labor 
of  hoes,  pickaxes,  and  sledge-hammers,  to 
level  down  the  hillocks,  to  break  th-e  rocks, 
and  to  cut  such  of  the  remaining  stumps 


What  is  then  done 
trees  being  felled— 


7.  A  sufficient  number  of 
8.  What  of  road-cutting  ? 


98 


BOOK    OF    COMBIERCE. 


as  might  impede  the  wheels  that  are  here- 
after to  pass  over  them. 

9.  The  roads  being  now  in  a  state  of 
readiness,  which  may  generally  be  effected 
by  the  month  of  December,  the  mahogany 
tree  is  cut  into  logs,  which  are  squared  by 
means  of  the  axe.  In  March,  the  season 
being  dry,  it  is  time  to  draw  down  the  logs 
from  their  place  of  growth.  A  gang  of 
forty  men  is  generally  capable  of  working 
six  trucks.  Each  truck  requires  seven 
pair  of  oxen  and  tw6  drivers :  sixteen  to 
cut  food  for  tlie  cattle,  and  twelve  to  load' 
or  put  the  logs  on  the  carriages. 

10.  From  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun, 
the  cattle,  especially,  would  be  unable  to 
work  during  its  influence ;  and,  conse- 
quently the  loading  and  carriage  of  the 
timber  are  performed  in  the  night.  Pieces 
of  wood  split  from  the  trunk  of  the  pitch- 
})ine  are  used  as  torches  by  the  workmen. 
The  river-side  is  generally  reached  by 
the  wearied  drivers  and  cattle  before 
the  sun  is  at  its  highest  power ;  and  the 
logs,  marked  with  the  owner's  initials,  are 
thrown  into  the  river. 

11.  About  the  end  of  May  the  periodical 
rains  again  commence.  The  torrents  of 
water  discharged  from  the  clouds  are  so 
great  as  to  render  the  roads  impassable  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours,  when  all  truck- 
ing ceases.  About  the  middle  of  June, 
the  rivers  are  swollen  to  an  immense 
height.  The  logs  then  float  down  a  dis- 
tance of  two  hundred  miles,  being  follow- 
ed by  the  gang  in  canoes,  to  disengage 
them  from  the  branches  of  the  overhang- 
ing trees,  until  they  are  stopped  in  some 
convenient  situation  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  Each  gang  then  separates  its  own 
cuttings,  which  are  recognised  by  the  marks 
on  the  ends  of  the  logs,  and  forms  them 
into  large  rafts;  in  this  state  they  are 
brought  down  to  the  wharves  of  the  pro- 


I  prietors,  where  they  are  taken  out  of  the 
water,  and  smoothed  on  their  sides  by  the 
axe.  The  ends,  which  frequently  get  split 
and  rent  by  being  dashed  against  rocks  in 
the  river,  are  also  sawed  off.  They  are 
now  ready  for  shipping.  Belize  is  the 
principal  port  for  this  purpose. 
BOX-WOOD. 

12.  The  box-tree  is  a  native  of  all  the 
middle  and  southern  parts  of  Europe.  It 
is  a  shrubby  evergreen,  twelve  or  fifteen 
feet  high,  and  with  bright,  myrtle-shaped 
leaves.  It  has  been  remarked  that  this 
tree  was  formerly  so  common  in  several 
parts  of  England  as  to  have  given  name  to 
several  places,  particularly  to  Boxhill  in 
Surry,  and  Boxley  in  Kent;  and  in  1815, 
there  were  cut  down  at  Boxhill,  as  many 
trees  of  this  sort  as  produced  upwards 
of  £10,000.      This  tree  was    much    ad- 

i  mired  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  has 
!  been  much  cultivated,  in  latter  times,  on 
I  account  of  its  being  easily  clipped  into 
the  forms  of  animals  and  other  fantastic 
I  shapes. 

13.  The  wood  is  of  a  yellowish  color, 
closely  grained,  very  hard  and  heavy,  and 
admits  of  a  beautiful  polish.  On  these 
accounts,  it  is  much  used  by  turners,  by 
engravers  on  wood,  carvers,  and  mathe- 
matical instrument  makers.  Flutes  and 
other  w^ind  instruments  are  formed  of  it ; 
and  furniture  made  of  box-wood,  would 
be  valuable  were  it  not  too  heavy,  as  it 
would  not  only  be  very  beautiful,  but  its 
better  quality  would  secure  it  from  the  at- 
tacks of  insects.  In  France  it  is  in  much 
demand  for  comb^,  knife  handles  and  but- 
ton moulds :  and  it  has  been  stated  that 
the  quantity  annually  sent  from  Spain  to 
Paris  is  alone  estimated  at  more  than  ten 
thousand  livres.  An  oil  distilled  from  the 
shavings  of  box-wood  has  been  found  to 
relieve  the  tooth-ache,  and  to  be  useful  in 


9.  How  is  tlie  mahogany  transported  ?  10.  When 
is  the  operation  of  loading  performed  ?   11.  What 


of  the  swelling  of  the  rivers.'    12.  What  of  box- 
wood ?    13.  Its  color  &c.  ?    14.  What  of  enjjrav- 


WOODS. 


99 


other    complaints:     and     the     powdered 
leaves  destroy  worms. 

14.  There  is  one  purpose  for  which 
box,  and  box  alone,  is  properly  adapted, 
and  that  is  the  forming  of  wood  cuts,  for 
illustrations  in  books.  These  reduce  the 
price  considerably  in  the  first  engraving, 
and  also  in  the  printing ;  while  the  wood- 
cut in  box  admits  of  as  fine  and  sharp  a 
finish  as  any  metal,  and  takes  the  ink  much 
better.  It  is  remarkably  durable  too  ;  for, 
if  the  cut  be  not  exposed  to  alternate 
moisture  or  heat,  so  as  to  warp  or  crush  it, 
the  numbers  of  thousands  that  it  will  print 
is  almost  incredible.  The  illustrations  of 
this  book  are  engravings  on  box-wood. 

EBONY. 

15.  Ebony- wood  is  brought  from  the 
Indies.  It  is  exceedingly  hard  and  heavy, 
susceptible  of  a  very  fine  polish,  and  on 
that  account  used  in  mosaic  and  inlaid 
works.  There  a^'e  many  kinds  of  ebony  : 
the  most  usual  are  black,  red,  and  green. 
Black  ebony  is  much  preferred  to  that  of 
any  other  color.  It  is  now  much  less 
used  than  formerly;  since  the  discovery 
of  so  many  ways  of  imparting  to  other 
woods  a  black  color. 

LIGNUM  VITAE. 

16.  The  Lignumvitae  of  commerce  is  a 
dark-looking  evergreen,  and  grows  to  a 
gi'eat  size  in  the  West  India  islands,  of 
which  it  is  a  native.  It  is  a  very  hardy 
tree,  and  retains  its  greenness  in  the  dryest 
weather.  It  strikes  its  root  deep  into  the 
ground,  and  thus  defies  the  hurricane  as 
well  as  the  drought.  The  bark  is  hard, 
smooth  and  brittle ;  and  the  wood  is  of  a 
yellowish,  or,  rather,  olive  color. 

17.  Lignumvitae  is  the  weightiest  tim- 
ber with  which  we  are  acquainted,  and  it 
is  the  most  difiicult  to  work.  It  can  hard- 
ly be  split,  but  breaks  into  pieces  like  a 
stone  or  crystallized  metal.     It  is  full  of 


ing  on  wood  ?  15.  What  of  ebony  ?   16.  Lignum- 
vitsB  ?  17.  Its  weight .'  18.  Of  what  size  is  it  when 


resinous  juice,  which  prevents  oil  or  water 
from  working  into  it ;  and  it  is,  therefore 
proof  against  decay.  Its  weight  and 
hardness  make  it  the  very  best  timber  for 
stampers  and  mallets  of  all  sorts ;  and  its 
resinous  matter  fits  it  the  best  for  the 
sheaves  or  pulleys  of  blocks,  and  for  fric- 
tion rollers  and  castors. 

IS.  When  full  grown,  the  largest  lig- 
numvitae trees  are  from  forty  to  fifty  feet 
in  height,  and  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter.  The  resin  of  the  lig- 
numvitae, Gum  Guaicum  of  the  shops, 
may  be  obtained  by  tapping  the  live  tree, 
and  also  by  boiling  the  chips  and  sawdust 
of  the  wood.  It  is  aromatic,  slightly 
bitter,  and  prescribed  in  chronic  rheuma- 
tisms and  other  diseases. 

ROSEWOOD,  &c. 

19.  The  wood  most  in  use  for  cabinet 
works,  next  to  mahogany  is  rosewood. 
*rhe  name  of  this  species  of  wood  is  de- 
rived from  its  fragrance  ;  and  it  has  long 
been  known  to  cabinet-makers.  It  was 
first  introduced,  it  is  said,  from  the  island 
of  Cyprus ;  though  the  great  supply  now 
comes  from  Brazil.  The  width  of  the 
logs  imported  into  this  country  averages 
twenty-two  inches,  so  that  it  must  be  the 
produce-  of  a  considerable  tree.  The 
wood  is  usually  cut  into  veneers  of  nine 
to  an  inch ;  and  is  employed  in  this  way 
for  all  the  larger  furniture,  such  as  tables ; 
but  solid  for  the  legs  of  chairs,  tables  and 
cabinets. 

20.  There  are  many  other  varieties  of 
fancy  wood,  as  the  calamander  wood  of 
the  island  of  Ceylon,  zebra  wood,  sandal 
wood,  satin  wood,  Coromandel  wood  &c 
These  are  less  used  than  those  which  we 
have  described,  but  perhaps  they  are  not 
much  inferior  to  them  in  beauty.  Brazil 
furnishes  an  endless  variety  of  useful  and 
ornamental  wood. 


full  grown  ?    What  is  gum  guaicum  ?    19.  Rose 
wood  ?    20.  What  of  other  kinds  of  wood  ? 


100 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


CHAP.  XXVIII. 

DRUGS,  MEDICINES,  DYE-STUFFS  &c. 

LOGWOOD. 

1.  This  is  the  wood  of  a  tree,  a  native 
of  America,  and  which  attains  the  greatest 
perfection  at  Campeachy  and  in  the  West 
Indies.  The  tree  grows  very  high.  Its 
seeds  are  known  by  the  name  of  Jamaica 
pepper  or  allspice.  Logwood  is  so  heavy 
as  to  sink  in  water :  it  is  hard,  compact,  cf 
a  fine  grain,  capable  of  being  polished,  and 
scarcely  susceptible  of  decay. 

2.  The  chief  use  of  logwood  is  for 
dying.  For  this  purpose  its  juice,  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  may  be  extracted  by 
decoction  with  water.  Alcohol  extracts 
it  more  readily  and  copiously  than  water. 
The  color  of  its  dyes  is  a  fine  red,  inclin- 
ing a  little  to  violet  or  purple.  Acids  turn 
it  yellow :  alkalies  deepen  its  color.  Log- 
wood is  an  article  of  great  commercial 
importance.  It  is  imported  in  logs,  which 
are  afterwards  chipped. 

BRAZIL-WOOD. 

3.  This  wood  is  so  called  from  the 
province  whence  it  was  brought ;  although 
it  has  been  contested  that  the  name  and 
the  wood  were  common  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  and  that  the  province 
received  its  name  from  the  wood.  The 
tree  is  large,  crooked  and  knotty.  The 
leaves  are  of  a  beautiful  red,  and  exhale 
an  agreeable  odor.  The  principal  use  of 
the  wood  is  in  dying  red ;  and  though  the 
color  is  liable  to  decay,  yet,  by  mixing  it 
with  alum  and  tartar,  it  is  easily  made 
permanent.  There  is  also  made  of  it,  by 
means  of  acids,  a  sort  of  liquid  lake  or 
carmine,  for  painting  in  minjature. 

FUSTIC. 

4.  Fustic  is  the  wood  of  a  species  of 
mulberry,  growing  in  most  parts  of  South 
America,  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
West  India    islands.     It    is    a    large   and 


I.    What  of  logwood  ?    2.  Its  use  ?    3.  Brazil 


handsome  tree ;  and  the  timber,  though 
like  most  other  dye-woods,  brittle,  is  hard 
and  close-grained.  It  is  very  extensively 
used  as  an  ingredient  in  the  dying  of  yel- 
low, and  is  largely  imported  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

ANNOTTO. 
5.  Annotto,  or  Arnatto,  is  a  kind  of 
buflT-colored  dye,  which  has  acquired  with 
us  the  name  of  J^ankeen,  from  Nanking 
in  China,  whence  the  calico  so  colored 
first  came.  It  is  procured  from  the  seed 
capsules  of  the  Bixa,  a  tree  of  South 
America.  The  seeds  are  contained  in  a 
pod  similar  to  a  chestnut.  This  article  is 
extensively  used  in  dying  and  painting. 
COCHINEAL. 
6.  Cochineal  is  found  in  Mexico, 
Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and  some  of  the 
West  India  islands,  but  it  is  in  Mexico 
only  that  it  is  reared  with  care  and  forms 
an  important  article  of  commerce.  It  is  a 
small  insect,  seldom  exceeding  the  size  of 
a  grain  of  barley  ;  and  was  generally  be 
lieved,  for  a  considerable  time  after  it 
began  to  be  imported  into  Europe,  to  be  a 
sort  of  vegetable  grain  or  seed.  It  is  prin- 
cipally used  in  the  dying  of  scarlet,  crim- 
son, and  other  bright  colors.  It  is  impor- 
ted in  bags,  each  containing  about  200  lbs. 

7.  The  two  sexes  of  this  insect  are  ex- 
ceedingly dissimilar  in  their  appearance. 
The  female,  which  alone  is  valuable  for  its 
color,  is  ill-shaped,  awkward  and  stupid. 
The  male  is  very  scarce,  and  one  is  suffi- 
cient for  300  females.  It  is  small,  slender 
and  active  in  comparison  with  the  female. 

8.  The  cochineal  insect  may,  in  some 
respects,  be  compared  to  the  silk-worm, 
particularly  in  the  manner  of  depositing  its 
eggs.  The  insects  destined  for  this  pur- 
pose are  taken  at  a  proper  time  of  their 
growth,  and  put  into  a  box  well  closed, 
and  lined  with  a  coarse  cloth,  lest  any  of 
them  should  be  lost ;  and  in  this  confine- 
wood?    4.  Fustic.''    5.  Annotto.^    From  what  is 


DRUGS,    MEDICINES,    DYE-STUFFS,    &C. 


101 


ment  they  lay  their  eggs  and  die.  At 
Oaxaca,  cochineal  insects  are  gathered  in 
lai-ge  quantities,  and  form  an  extensive 
branch  of  commerce ;  tlie  cultivation  of 
these  little  creatures  being  there  the  chief 
employment  of  the  Indians.  Cochineal  is 
sometimes  used  in  medicine. 
INDIGO. 

9.  Indigo  is  the  drug  which  yields  the 
beautiful  dye  of  that  name.  It  is  obtained 
from  certain  tropical  plants,  which  are 
cultivated  both  in  India  and  America.  It 
is  probable  that  the  culture  of  the  indigo  I 
plant  has  been  practised  in  India  from  ai 
remote  period.  As  it  is  found  in  com- 
merce, indigo  presents  the  form  of  little 
square  or  oblong  cakes,  of  a  deep  blue 
color.  It  is  brittle,  rather  light,  and  with- 
out taste  or  odor.  Sulphuric  acid  is  the 
only  single  agent  that  dissolves  indigo 
without  destroying  its  color. 

10.  The  indigo  plant  requires  a  light, 
rich  soil,  and  a  warm  exposure.  It  suc- 
ceeds best  on  newly  cleared  lands,  on  ac- 
count of  their  moisture.  The  seed,  which, 
as  to  figure  and  color,  resembles  gunpow- 
der, is  sown  in  little  furrows,  at  a  foot 
distant  from  each  other.  Though  it  may 
be  sown  in  all  seasons,  the  spring  is  com- 
monly preferred.  When  the  plant  has 
been  cut  down,  it  is  placed  in  layers  in  a 
large  wooden  vessel,  and  covered  with 
water.  In  this  situation  it  cannot  remain 
long  in  warm  climates  without  undergoing 
some  change.  A  blue  sediment  is  finally 
obtained  in  this  manner,  which  when 
dried  is  formed  into  small  lumps,  and 
packed  for  exportation. 

11.  The  value  of  the  indigo  consumed 
in  the  United  States  in  1829,  was  estima- 
ted at  two  millions  of  dollars.  Of  this, 
about  one  tenth  part  only,  or  200,000 
pounds  was  raised  in  the  country.  It  is 
computed  that  British  India  supplies  three 


it  procured  ?     Its  use  ?     C.  Where  is  cochineal 
found?   9.  What  of  Indigo?  ]0.  What  of  its  cul-  j 


fourths    of    all    the    indigo   brought   into 
European  markets. 

MADDER. 

12.  Madder  is  the  root  of  a  plant  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties.  It  is 
very  much  used  in  dying  red  ;  and  though 
the  color  which  it  imparts  be  less  bright 
and  beautiful  than  that  of  cochineal,  it  has 
the  advantage  of  being  cheaper  and  more 
durable.  It  is  a  native  of  the  South  of 
Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  India. 

BARILLA. 

13.  Barilla  is  the  name  of  a  sea-plant 
which  grows  very  plentifully  on  the  coast 
of  Spain.  It  abounds  with  soda ;  and  the 
impure  ashes  of  the  plant,  containing  that 
salt  in  great  abundance,  form  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  The  ashes  them- 
selves are  commonly  called  barilla. 

GUM  ARABIC. 

14.  This  gum  exudes  from  the  Egyptian 
acacia  or  thorn-tree,  whose  fruit  affords 
the  inspissated  juice  of  that  name.  It  is 
brought  to  this  country  principally  from 
the  Levant.  It  is  employed  by  dyers, 
calico-printers  «fec.,  and  is  of  some  use  in 
medicine. 

ASSA-FOETIDA. 

15.  This  substance  is  brought  in  large 
masses  from  Persia  and  the  East  Indies. 
It  is  a  compact,  gummy,  resinous  sub- 
stance, and  soft  and  pliable  like  wax  when 
new.  It  smells  like  garlic,  but  much 
stronger,  and  has  a  bitter,  biting  taste.  It 
is  used  in  medicine  as  a  powerful  stimu- 
lant, particularly  of  the  nervous  system. 

COPAL. 

16.  This  gum-resin  is  obtained  from 
a  tree,  which  is  a  native  of  North  Ameri- 
ca. It  is  transparent,  and  of  a  bright 
brown  color.  •  It  forms  an  excellent  var- 
nish, which,  when  properly  applied  and 
slowly  dried,  is  very  hard  and  durable.  It 
is  applied  to  snuffboxes,  tea-boards,  &c. 


ture  ?   11.  What  of  the  quantity  consumed  in  the 
United  States?    12.  What  of  n.adder ?    13.  Ba 


t02 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


CAOUTCHOUC. 

17.  This  substance,  usually  termed  In- 
dian rubber,  is  prepared  from  the  juice  of 
a  tree  growing  in  Cayenne,  and  other  parts 
of  South  America.  The  trunk  of  the  tree 
is  wounded  by  a  sharp  instrument,  and 
the  juice  which  flows  from  it  applied  in 
successive  coatings  on  a  mould  of  clay, 
and  dried  by  the  fire  or  the  sun.  When 
it  is  of  a  sufficient  thickness,  the  mould  is 
removed. 

18.  Besides  its  use  for  removing  the 
marks  of  black  lead  from  paper,  it  is  now 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes, 
surgical  instruments  and  a  variety  of  other 
articles.  India  rubber  s^oes  are  exported 
from  Para  in  South  America,  and  have 
become  a  very  important  article  of  com- 
merce. This  valuable  product  was  first 
made  known  to  Europeans  in  1736.  Va- 
rious attempts  have  been  made  to  trans- 
port it  to  Europe  in  its  fluid  state,  but 
without  success.  Its  application  to  the 
arts  is  various,  but,  until  recently,  no  ad- 
vantage has  been  taken  of  one  of  its  most 
remarkable  properties,  its  elasticity.  Two 
ingenious  chemists  of  Paris,  by  a  new  pro- 
cess, have  succeeded  in  spinning  it  into 
threads  of  various  sizes,  and  it  is  now  wo- 
ven into  suspenders,  garters,  surgical  ban- 
dages for  ruptures,  fractured  or  dislocated 
limbs. 

GAMBOGE. 

19.  Gamboge  is  a  resinous  gum  of  a 
firm  and  compact  texture,  and  of  a  beauti- 
ful yellow  color.  It  is  chiefly  brought 
from  Cambaja,  or  Cambogia,  in  the  East 
Indies,  whence  it  has  obtained  its  name. 
The  best  sort  is  of  a  deep  yellow  or  orange 
color.  It  has  no  smell  and  very  little 
taste.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  strong 
purgative,  but  itg  principal  use  is  as  a  pig- 
ment in  water  colors,  though  it  does  not 
stand. 

rillar    14.  Gum  Arabic  ?     15.  Assa-foetida  ?    16. 
Copal?  17.  Caoutchouc?   18.  Its  uses.-'  19.  What 


GUM-LAC. 

20.  Lac  or  gum-lac  is  the  produce  oi 
an  insect,  which  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
branches  of  a  tree  called  Bihar,  in  Assam, 
and  elsewhere  in  India.  Lac  possesses 
the  properties  of  a  resin,  and  is  the  basis 
of  many  varnishes,  and  of  the  finest  kinds 
of  sealing-wax.  It  is  used  in  painting, 
and  imparts  a  fine  red  color  to  silk  and 
cotton.  In  India,  lac  is  formed  into  rings^ 
beads,  and  other  trinkets. 

MYRRH. 

21.  Myrrh  is  brought  from  the  East  In- 
dies, and  likewise  from  Alexandria,  Smyr- 
na, and  Ale})po.  It  is  hard,  dry,  glossy, 
and  of  various  colors,  and  is  the  i)roduce 
of  a  tree,  of  which  very  little  is  known. 
Myrrh  has  a  peculiar  and  rather  fragrant 
odor,  and  a  bitter  aromatic  taste.  It  is 
used  chiefly  in  medicine. 

TRAGACANTH. 

22.  Tragacanth  is  obtained  from  a  small 
plant  of  the  same  name  growing  in  Syria 
and  other  eastern  parts.  It  is  brought  to 
us  chiefly  from  Turkey.  It  is  usually 
dearer  than  other  gums.  This  article  is 
of  great  use  in  medicine.  Skinners  and 
curriers  likewise  use  considerable  quan-' 
titles  of  it  in  the  preparation  of  their 
leather. 

CAMPHOR. 

23.  Camphor,  as  we  have  it,  looks 
something  like  white  sugar-candy.  It  is 
of  the  nature  of  rosin.     It  tastes  very  bit- 

'ter;    and  Avill  not  dissolve  in  water,  bul 
only  in  spirits  of  wine. 

24.  The  camphor  tree  is  a  species  of 
laurel,  which  grows  in.  the  East  Indies 
chiefly  in  the  islands  of  Borneo  and 
Ceylon.  It  is  procured  by  distillation,  ir 
Japan.  Great  quantities  are  used  in  me- 
dicine ;  and  Eastern  princes  burn  it,  as  il 
is  very  inflammable,  gives  a  great  light,  an(* 
vields  a  considerable  degree  of  fragrance. 


of  gamboge?  20.  Gum-lac?  21.  Myrrh?  ^.  Tra 
gacanth  ?    23  24.  Camphor  ?    35.  How  is  it  ob 


RUGS,    MEDICINES,    DYE-STUFFS,    6cC'. 


103 


25.  Camphor  is  imported  in  chests, 
drums  and  casks.  When  pure,  it  has  a 
strong,  fragrant,  penetrating  odor,  and  a 
bitter,  pungent,  aromatic  taste.  Camphor 
is  obtained  in  Sumatra  in  concrete  masses 
from  the  heart  of  the  tree ;  but  not  above 
one  tree  in  three  hundred  contains  this 
valuable  substance,  which  is  daily  becom- 
ing scarcer.  China  and  Japan  camphor  is 
obtained  by  boiling  the  roots  and  smaller 
branches  of  the  tree,  cut  into  small  pieces, 
in  large  iron  kettles,  on  the  top  of  which 
the  camphor  rises.  When  refined,  cam- 
phor is  in  thin  hollow  cakes  of  a  virgin 
whiteness,  and,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  total- 
ly evaporates.  It  is  so  inflammable  as  to 
preserve  its  liame  in  water. 

OPIUM. 

26.  Opium  is  obtained  from  the  white 
poppy,  a  plant  which  is  cuhivated  in  great 
abundance  in  India  and  other  parts  of  the 
East.  The  poppy  is  planted  in  a  fertile 
soil  and  well  watered.  When  at  its  full 
growth  an  incision  is  made  in  the  top  of 
the  plant,  from  which  there  issues  a  white 
milky  juice,  which  soon  hardens,  and  is 
scraped  off  the  plants,  and  wrought  into 
cakes.  In  this  state  it  is  exported.  Opi- 
um thus  prepared  is  a  tough,  brown  sub- 
stance, has  a  pecuHar  smell,  and  a  bitter 
taste.  It  burns  very  readily  when  held  to 
a  flame. 

27.  The  Turkish  opium  is  in  most  es- 
teem, and  large  quantities  of  it  are  expor- 
ted to  China.  An  excessive  fondness  for 
opium  prevails  in  all  parts  of  Turkey,  and 
the  East  Indies.  In  vain  have  the  laws 
of  China  condemned  to  the  flames  every 
vessel  that  imports,  and  every  house  that 
receives  it ;  its  use  is  not  less  consider- 
able. It  is  still  greater  at  Malacca,  Borneo, 
Sumatra  &c.  These  islanders  smoke  it 
ivith  their  tobacco ;  those  who  are  desir- 
ous of  attempting  some  desperate  action 
intoxicate  themselves  with  the  fume.    The 


Turks,  likewise,  smoke  and  chew  opium 
just  before  they  go  into  battiC. 

28.  The  efl'ects  of  opium  on  those  who 
are  accustomed  to  take  it  in  considerable 
quantities,  are  highly  exhilarating.  It  pro- 
duces a  kind  of  pleasing  delirium,  in  which 
the  imagination  is  vividly  employed  in 
contemplating  the  most  delightful  images, 
and  forming  the  most  extravagant  com- 
binations of  ideas.  But  the  depression 
which  ensues,  when  its  effects  have  subsi- 
ded, is  proportionally  great.  The  ill  con- 
sequences which  arise  from  the  use  of 
opium  are  more  serious  than  those  from 
the  immoderate  drinking  of  wine.  The 
most  dreadful  nervous  irritation  and  de- 
bility are  experienced,  and  the  strength  of 
the  body,  and  the  powers  of  the  mind  are 
soon  destroyed.  Laudanum,  a  powerful 
poison,  is  obtained  from  opium. 

GINSENG. 

29.  The  root  of  tliis  plant  has  been 
celebrated  for  a  long  time  among  the  Chi- 
nese ;  and  indeed  so  highly  is  it  prized  as 
to  have  received  the  appellations  of  "  pure 
spirit  of  the  earth,"  and  "  plant  that  gives 
immortality."  Volumes  have  been  written 
on  its  virtues,  and  recourse  is  had  to  it  in 
every  difficulty.  The  plant  is  said  to  be  a 
native  of  Tartary,  growing  wild  in  a 
mountainous  and  wooded  region,  where  it 
is  collected  with  many  precautions  by  the 
Chinese  and  Tartars,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  spring  and  in  the  latter  part  of 
autumn,  and  is  so  rare  as  to  bring  three 
times  its  weight  in  silver.  An  early 
traveller  relates  that  the  emperor  of  China 
employed,  in  one  year,  10,000  Tartars  in 
procuring  this  root.  From  China  it  was 
imported  into  Japan,  where  it  was  obtained 
by  the  Dutch,  who  first  brought  it  to  Eu- 
rope. 

30.  Notwithstanding  the  extravagant 
price  an*  high  reputation  of  ginseng  in 
China,  it   appears    to    be,  really,  a    plant 


tiined.'  26.  What  of  opium  .'  27.  Turkish  opium.?    23.  Its  effects.'    29.  What  of  ginseng  .^  30.  Does 


104 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


of  very  little  efficacy ;  the  taste  is  sweet 
and  mucilaginous,  accompanied  with  some 
bitterness,  and  also  slightly  aromatic.  The 
same  plant  inhabits  the  United  States, 
chiefly  in  the  vicinity  or  upon  the  Alleg- 
hany mountains,  and  has  been  exported  to 
China  in  such  quantities  as  to  reduce  the 
price  very  much. 

LIQUORICE. 

31.  This  root  grows  wild  in  many  parts 
of  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany. 
The  plant  which  affords  liquorice-root  sel- 
dom exceeds  a  foot  in  height ;  its  leaves 
are  of  a  dark  glossy  green  color ;  the  blos- 
soms are  red,  and  produce  small  pods, 
which  contain  the  seed.  The  inspissated 
juice  of  the  common  liquorice-root  is 
brought  to  us  in  rolls,  or  cakes,  usually 
covered  with  bay-leaves,  from  Spain  and 
Holland.  Refined  liquorice,  or  that  de- 
scription of  the  article  which  is  vended  in 
thin,  rounded,  and  glazed  pieces,  about  the 
thickness  of  a  crow's  quill,  is  prepared  in 
England  and  in  this  country.  The  whole 
process  consists  m  evaporating  the  liquor- 
ice-ball anew,  and  purifying  it  with  the 
help  of  isinglass  &c. 

RHUBARB. 

32.  There  are  several  species  of  the 
rhubarb-plant.  Two  sorts  of  rhubarb  are 
met  with  in  the  shops.  The  first  is  im- 
ported from  Turkey  and  Russia.  The 
other,  which  is  less  esteemed,  comes  im- 
mediately from  the  East  Indies.  The 
mountains  of  Thibet  abound  with  rhu- 
barb ;  and  it  is  produced  in  great  abun- 
dance on  the  confines  of  China  and  Tar- 
tary.  Rhubarb  is  much  used  in  medicine. 
Its  yellow  color  is  remarkably  less  destruc- 
tible than  any  other  vegetable  yellows. 

.MANNA. 

33.  Several  vegetables  afford  manna. 
It  is  extracted  from  the  pine,  the  fir,  the 
maple,  the  oak,  the  fig,  the    olive,  and  a 

It  grow  in  the  United  States?  31,  What  of  h- 
Suorice?  32.  Rhubarb  .'  .33.  34.  What  of  manna.? 


1  variety  of  other  trees;  but  the  ash,  the 
I  larch,  and  the  alhagi  afford  it  in  the  larg  • 
lest  quantities.  Tlie  ash  which  affords 
I  manna  grows  naturally  in  all  temperate 
.  climates ;  but  Calabria  and  Sicily  appear 
jito  be  the  most  congenial  countries  to  this 
tree  ;  or  at  least,  it  is  only  in  these  coun 
tries  that  it  abundantly  furnishes  the  juice 
called  manna  in  commerce. 

34.  The  manna  flows  naturally  from 
this  tree,  and  attaches  itself  to  its  sides  in 
the  form  of  white  trans})arent  drops ;  but 
incisions  are  made  in  the  tree  in  summer 
to  facilitate  the  extraction.  The  manna 
flows  through  these  apertures  upon  the 
trunk  of  the  tree,  from  whence  it  is  de- 
tached with  wooden  instruments.  The 
alhagi  is  a  tree  which  grows  in  Persia.  A 
juice  transudes  from  its  leaves  in  the  form 
of  drops  of  various  sizes,  which  the  sun 
hardens.  The  manna  most  frequently 
used  is  that  which  is  brought  from  Cala- 
bria. The  best  sort  of  manna  comes  from 
Sicily. 

ALUM. 

35.  Alum  is  a  mineral  substance  com- 
posed of  a  peculiar  earth  termed  alumine 
and  sulphuric  acid.  Alum  is  sometimes 
found  native,  but  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  that  which  is  met  with  in  commerce  is 
artificially  prepared.  The  best  alum  is 
that  which  is  made  in  Italy.  It  is  shipped 
in  considerable  quantities  from  Smyrna, 
and  some  is  brought  from  England.  The 
principal  use  of  alum  is  in  the  process  of 
dying — as  it  gives  permanency  to  colors 
which  otherwise  would  not  adhere  at  all, 
or  but  for  a  very  short  time.  It  is  also 
used  in  medicine,  and  for  a  variety  of 
purposes.  The  ancients  are  supposed  to 
have  been  unacquainted  with  alum.  It 
was  first  discovered  by  the  Orientals,  who 
established  alum  works  in  Syria  in  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  centnrv. 


35  Alum  ?   For  what  is  it  used  .'   Was  it  known 
by  the  ancients  ? 


WHALE    FISHERY. 


10^ 


CHAP.  XXIX. 
WHALE  FISHERY. 

1.  The  whale  is  the  largest  fish  that 
swims,  of  which  we  have  any  certain 
knowledge.  Those  which  are  now  found 
do  not  seem  to  rise  to  the  vast  dimensions 
of  which  we  read  in  former  times,  when 
tljey  have  been  found  ninety,  and  even  a 
hundred  feet  long.  It  is  rather  a  clumsy 
iish,  for  its  head  is  one  third  of  its  whole 
size. 

2.  The  whale  has,  in  the  upper  part  of 
its  head,  two  openings  from  its  mouth. 
Through  these  it  spouts  out  water,  as  if 
for  its  amusement;  though  often  to  its 
ruin,  as  the  whalers  discern  by  that  where- 
abouts the  fish  are  swimming.  This  water 
is  spouted  out  not  only  in  great  quantities, 
but  frequently  with  a  thundering  noise. 
Its  eyes  seem  very  small ;  not  larger  than 
those  of  a  bull. 

3.  It  does  not  seem  fond  of  our  warmer 
climates.  It  rather  chooses  the  cold  re- 
gions of  the  poles,  both  northern  and 
southern.    There,  for  ages,  it  played  about 


undisturbed  ;  but  of  later  years  it  has  been 
j|iuch  interrupted  in  its  sports. 

4.  So  early  as  the  time  of  Alfred,  the 
people  of  Norway  had  begun  to  catch 
whales.  But  this  knowledge  seems  to 
have  been  lost  or  useless,  for  seven  hun- 


1.  2.  :J.    What  of  the  whale?    4.   When  did 
people  begin  to  catch  whales?    5.  When  were 


dred  years.  The  people  of  Biscay,  a  prov- 
ince of  Spain,  were  eminent  in  this  fishery, 
and  first  followed  the  whales  into  their 
Polar  recesses.  They  were  once  common 
in  the  ocean,  before  they  were  hunted 
thus.  So  that,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth, 
when  the  English  began  to  prosecute  that 
business,  it  was  advised  to  procure  from 
'  Biscaye  men  skilful  in  catching  the  whale, 
and  orderinge  of  the  oyle.' 

5.  The  oil  indeed  was  the  only  mate- 
rial sought  by  the  English  for  a  long  time. 
But  a  vessel  which  had  been  unsuccess- 
fully endeavoring  to  fish  near  Cape  Bre- 
ton, in  North  America,  met  with  the  re  • 
mains  of  a  ship  of  Biscay,  which  had 
been  wrecked  on  that  coast  the  year  be- 
fore ;  and  on  board  were  found  eight  hun- 
dred pieces  of  whalebone,  which  were 
brought  home.  This  was  the  first  time 
any  of  that  commodity  appeared  in  Eng- 
land. 

6.  The  jaw-bones  of  the  whale  are  very 
large  ;  a  foot  thick,  and  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet  long:  they  are  sometimes  set  up  as 
gate  posts:  but  what  is  called  whalebone, 
is  not  the  bones  of  the  whale,  but  rather 
some  very  large  gristly  substances  which 
it  has  inside  its  mouth,  by  means  of  which 
it  strains  off  the  snails  it  feeds  upon,  so 
that  when  it  forces  out  the  water,  it  still 
retains  them.  Instead  of  teeth,  the  whale 
has  five  hundred  horny  substances,  lami- 
nated, or  formed  of  thin  plates  laid  one 
over  another.  These  are  attached  to  the 
upper  jaw,  and  make  a  sort  of  cage  of  the 
mouth.  Some  of  them  are  five  feet  long, 
ending  in  fine  hairs  ;  and  they  diminish  in 
size,  till  some  are  quite  small. 

7.  The  skin  of  the  whale  is  not  covered 
with  scales  ;  it  is  an  inch  thick,  and  under 
it  is  a  lining  of  fat,  called  bluhber,  almost 
half  a  yard  thick.  In  so  large  a  creature, 
this  makes  a  vast  quantity  ;  a  single  whale 


they  'caught    for    their    bones?      6.    What  of 
whalebone  ?    7.  The  skin  of  the  whale  ?  Blub- 


106 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


yielding  sometimes  a  hundred   and  fifty 
tons  of  oil. 

8.  The  flesh  of  the  whale  is  eaten  by 
the  Greenlanders,  either  raw  or  baked,  or 
dried  in  the  sun.  The  skin,  the  tail,  and 
the  fins,  are  accounted  delicacies  without 
any  cooking.  The  intestines  are  formed 
into  a  transparent  skin,  for  their  windows  ; 
and  the  tendons  are  split  into  threads,  for 
twine  for  their  nets,  or  for  sewing. 

9.  It  may  be  supposed,  that  the  catch- 
ing of  a  creature  of  such  an  enormous 
bulk,  must  be  attended  with  considerable 
hazard.  When  a  whale  is  angry,  it  will 
sometimes  dash  the  boat  apd  all  in  it  to 
destruction,  with  one  stroke  of  its  huge 
tail.  The  ship  itself  is  hardly  able  to  re- 
sist its  fury,  when  attacked  by  it.  In 
some  cases,  the  mariners  throw  out  an 
empty  barrel  to  the  enraged  animal :  if 
the  whale  attacks  this,  the  boats  row  away 
in  safety  ;  while  he  teases  himself,  in  beat- 
ing about  this  supposed  enemy. 

10.  Every  ship  carries  with  it  six  boats, 
with  hands  enough  to  put  a  harpooner 
and  six  men  into  each.  When  they  come 
to  that  part  of  the  sea  where  they  expect 
to  find  the  fish,  they  keep  two  boats  con- 
stantly on  the  watch,  and  the  others  in 
readiness.  When  one  of  these  watching 
boats  descries  a  whale,  they  both   row  af- 


'.er  it.     The   harpooner  who  first  comes 
aear  enough,    darts  his    harpoon   into  it, 


S)er?    8.  The  flesh?    9—12    The  whale  fishery 


with  all  his  force.  As  soon  as  a  whale  1»^ 
struck,  aji  oar  is  set  upright  in  the  boat,  aa 
a  signal ;  and  immediately  all  the  others 
row  thither,  to  assist  in  securing  the  prize. 

11.  To  the  harpoon  is  attached  a  long 
line,  so  coiled  up  as  to  run  out  without 
hindrance.  Should  it  get  entangled  with 
the  boat,  the  boat  would  be  dragged  under 
water  instantly ;  for  the  wounded  fish 
swims  off  with  great  rapidity,  and  often 
dives  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  To 
prevent  such  a  danger,  one  man  stands ' 
over  the  line,  as  it  passes  the  edge  of  the 
boat,  with  a  hatchet  raised  ready  to  strike, 
that  he  might  cut  the  rope  in  an  instant. 
Indeed,  the  velocity  of  the  creature  is  so 
great,  that  the  men  continually  wet  the 
edge  of  thel*ii>oat  where  the  line  runs,  lest 
it  should,  by  the  intense  friction,  catch 
fire.  .1 

12.  The  whale  cannot  continue  im-  * 
mersed  in  the  .water  for  any  great  length  of 
time ;  he  must  come  up  to  breathe.  When 
they  see  him  rising,  they  row  after  him, 
and  strike  him  with  another  harpoon,  in 
order  to  ensure  and  expedite  his  dying. 
Becoming  exhausted,  he  cannot  now  con- 
tinue under  water  so  long  as  before ;  and 
when  he  comes  up  again,  he  is  little  able 

to  make  a  third  descent.  The  boats 
therefore  gather  around  him,  and  the  men 
kill  him  with  long  lances. 

13.  The  harpoon  is  a  long  staff,  at  one 
end  of  which  is  a  ring  for  the  line,  at  the 
other  a  triangular  iron,  or  sharp  barbed 
spear-head,  for  penetrating  deeply  into  the 
creature's  body.  An  instrument  more  ef- 
fectual,and  which  is  now  coming  into  use, 
is  the  gun  harpoon  ;  a  contrivance  for 
darting  the  instrument  from  a  blunderbuss, 
or  swivel  gun.  This  will  effect  the  pur- 
pose more  certainly,  and  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance. This  also  is  more  merciful ;  as, 
by  entering  more  deeply,  the  fish  is  killed 
at  once,  or  does  not   live  above  a  quarter 


13.    Describe    the   harpoon.     The   gunharpooa 


WHALE    FISHERY. 


107 


of  an  liour.  He  is  known  to  be  near  dy- 
ing, when  the  water  he  spouts  out  becomes 
ringed  with  blood. 

14.  When  they  have  conquered  him,  he 
is  fastened  with  ropes  to  the  side  of  the 
ship,  and  the  men  begin,  standing  upon 
him,  to  cut  out  his  fat,  in  large  lumps ; 
and  to  cut  off,  with  hatchets,  the  whale- 
bone from  his  upper  jaw.  The  substance 
of  the  carcass  they  leave  for  the  bears  or 
birds  of  prey.  A  fish  so  obtained  will  be 
worth  a  thousand  pounds,  or  less,  accord- 
»ng  to  its  size  ;  and  produces  about  seven- 
iy  butts  of  blubber. 

15.  These  fish,  at  first,  came  into  all 
the  bays,  and  shallower  arms  of  the  sea ; 
but  having  been  so  much  disturbed,  they 
now  frequent  only  the  deeper  waters. 
Davis's  Straits  seem  of  late  to  be  their 
favorite  haunt.  Yet  in  November,  they 
are  found  in  great  numbers  about  the 
mouth  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence  to 
which  the  females  retire  to  bring  forth 
their  young. 

16.  Another  product  of  the  whale  is 
SpermaceiL  There  is  one  species  of 
whale  so  named,  because  it  yields  this 
matter  in  greater  abundance.  This  is  a 
white,  flaky,  half-greasy  substance,  of 
much  use  in  medicine,  for  its  oily  quali- 
ties. Taken  inwardly,  it  softens  and  lu- 
bricates; and  by  the  same  qualities,  when 
used  externally,  it  renders  the  skin  soft 
and  delicate.  The  ladies  use  it  in  their 
cosmetics  ;  and  excellent  candles  are  made 
of  it. 

17.  The  real  nature  of  spermaceti  was 
not  known  for  a  long  time  ;  but  it  is  now 
agreed  to  be  the  brain  of  the  whale ;  some 
tons  are  yielded  by  a  single  fish.  This  is 
cut,  and  melted,  and  strained  repeatedly ; 
by  which  means  it  becomes  delicately 
white. 

18.  Something  like  it  may  be  manufac- 
tured from  whale  oil,  and  the  coarser  parts 

la — 17.   What  of  spermaceti  -'    13.  Ambergris  ? 


of  the  fish,  as  the  tail,  &c.    But  this  is  not 
so  good,  nor  will  it  keep  its  color. 

19.  Another  substance,  having  been 
found  in  the  bowels  of  the  whale,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  an  animal  concretion ;  this  is 
Ambergris ;  valued  chiefly  as  a  perfume, 
although  the  Asiatics  use  it  as  a  spice,  to 
flavor  their  dishes.  It  has  often  been 
found  floating  in  the  sea,  and  its  true 
source  was  not  known  till  lately.  It  is 
chiefly  in  the  spermaceti  whale  that  it  has 
been  met  with.  One  lucky  fisherman 
found  in  a  whale  a  mass  so  large  and  fine, 
that  he  sold  it  for  five  hundred  pounds. 

20.  Although  Greenland,  and  its  neigh- 
boring seas  in  the  North,  have  been  fre 
quented  most  for  whale  catching,  yet  these 
fishes  have  been  discovered  in  the  Antarc- 
tic seas ;  and  the  Southern  whale  fishery 
has  proved  very  lucrative ;  although  the 
distance  being  greater,  it  becomes  a  much 
longer  and  more  expensive  voyage.  The 
season  in  the  Northern  seas  is  in  May, 
June,  and  July  ;  and,  whether  successful 
or  not,  the  ships  must  come  away  by  Au- 
gust, or  they  would  be  frozen  up  in  the 
ice. 

21.  Man  is  the  greatest  enemy  the 
whale  has ;  yet  he  has  others.  ^The  black 
spermaceti  whale  attacks  and  tears  to 
pieces  the  smaller  white  whales.  The 
unicorn  fish  never  meets  the  great  whale 
without  a  battle.  The  white  bear  sits  on 
the  ice  watching  his  movements,  and, 
plunging  after  him,  by  repeated  wounds 
overcomes  the  unwieldy  prize.  Some- 
times two  or  more  saw-fish  attack  the 
whale.  The  only  weapon  the  whale  has 
is  its  tail ;  if  he  can  strike  his  enemy  with 
that,  he  dashes  him  to  pieces.  The  saw- 
fish very  nimbly  avoids  this  by  bounding 
out  of  the  water,  and,  returning,  strikes 
his  saw  into  the  back  of  the  whale. 

22.  In  1822,  two  boats  belonging  to  the 
ship  Baffin  went  in  pursuit  of  a  whale. 


19.  The  southern  whale-fishery  ?    20.  The  ena- 
g2 


108 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


John  Can*  was  harpooner  and  commander 
of  one  of  them.  The  whale  they  pursued 
led  them  into  a  va^^t  shoal  of  his  own 
species ;  they  were  so  numerous  that  their 
blowing  was  incessant,  and  they  believed 
that  they  did  not  see  fewer  than  an  hun- 
dred. Fearful  of  alarming  them  without 
striking  any,  they  remained  for  awhile 
motionless.  At  last,  one  rose  near  Carr's 
boat,  and  he  approached,  and  fatally  for 
himself,  harpooned  it.  When  he  struck, 
the  fish  was  approaching  the  boat ;  and, 
passing  very  rapidly,  jerked  the  line  out 
of  its  place  over  the  stern,  and  threw  it 
upon  the  gunwale.  Its  pressure  in  this 
unfavorable  position  so  careened  the  boat, 
that  the  side  was  pulled  under  water,  and 
it  began  to  fill. 

23.  In  this  emergency,  Carr,  who  was  a 
brave,  active  man,  siezed  the  line,  and  en- 
deavored to  relieve  the  boat  by  restoring  it 
to  its  place ;  but,  by  some  circumstance 
which  was  never  accounted  for,  a  turn  of 
the  line  flew  over  his  arm,  dragged  him 
overboard  in  an  instant,  and  drew  him 
under  the  water,  never  more  to  rise.  So 
sudden  was  the  accident,  that  only  bne 
man,  who  was  watching  him,  saw  what 
had  happened;  so  that  when  the  boat 
righted,  which  it  immediately  did,  though 
half  full  of  water,  the  whole  crew  on  look- 
ing round  inquired  what  had  become  of 
Carr. 

24.  It  is  impossible  to  imagine  a  death 
more  awfully  sudden  and  unexpected. 
The  invisible  bullet  could  not  have  effected 
more  instantaneous  destruction.  The  ve- 
locity of  the  whale  at  its  first  descent  is 
from  thirteen  to  fifteen  feet  per  second. 
Now  as  this  imfortunate  man  was  adjust- 
ing the  line  at  the  water's  very  edge,  where 
it  must  have  been  perfectly  tight,  owing  to 
its  obstruction  in  running  out  of  the  boat, 
the  interrval  between  the  fastening  the 
line    about   him    and    his    disappearance 


mies  of  the  whale  ?  21—23.  Carr's  adventure  ? 


could  not  have  exceeded  the  third  part  of 
a  second  of  time,  for  in  one  second  only 
he  must  have  been  dragged  ten  or  twelve 
feet  deep.  Indeed  he  had  not  time  for 
the  least  exclamation  ;  and  the  person  who 
saw  his  removal,  observed  that  it  was  so 
exceeding  quick,  that  though  his  eye 
was  upon  him  at  the  moment,  he  could 
scarcely  distinguish  his  figure  as  he  disap- 
peared. 

25.  A  harpooner  once  succeeded 
striking  a  whale,  at  the  distance  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  yards.  It  dragged  oul 
ten  lines,  (2400  yards,)  and  was  supposed 
to  be  seen  blowing  in  different  holes  ia 
the  ice.  After  some  time  it  made  its  ap- 
pearance on  the  exterior,  and  was  again 
struck,  at  the  moment  it  was  about  to  g< 
under  the  second  time.  About  an  hun- 
dred yards  from  the  edge,  it  broke  the  icd 
where  it  was  a  foot  thick,  with  its  headj 
and  respired  through  the  opening.  It  then 
pushed  forward,  breaking  the  ice  as  it  ad* 
vanced,  in  spite  of  the  lances  constantly 
directed  against  it.  At  last  it  reached  a 
kind  of  basin  in  the  field,  where  it  floated 
on  the  surface  without  any  incumbrance 
from  ice. 

26.  Its  back  being  fairly  exposed,  thi 
harpoon  struck  from  the  boat  on  the  out^ 
side,  was  observed  to  be  so  slightly  entaui 
gled,  that  it  was  ready  to  drop  out.  Soma 
of  the  officers  lamented  this  circumstance^ 
and  wished  that  the  harpoon  might  be  bet-" 
ter  fast;  at  the  same  time  observing  that 
if  it  should  slip  out,  either  the  fish  would 
be  lost,  or  they  would  be  under  the  neces-f 
sity  of  .flinching  it  where  it  lay,  and  of 
dragging  the  blubber  over  the  ice  to  the 
ship ;  a  kind  and  degree  of  labor  every 
one  was   anxious  to  avoid. 

27.  No  sooner  was  the  wish  expressed^ 
and  its  importance  explained,  than  a  youn^ 
and  daring  sailor  stepped  forward,  and 
offered  to  strike  the  harpoon  deeper.     No! 


24—^7.  The  sailor  who  jumped   on  a  whale' 


MISCELLANEOUS    PRODUCTIONS. 


109 


at  all  intimidated  by  the  surprise  manifest- 
ed on  every  countenance  at  such  a  bold 
proposal,  he  leaped  on  the  back  of  the  liv- 
ing whale,  and  cut  the  harpoon  out  with 
his  pocket  knife.  Stimulated  by  his  gal- 
lant example,  one  of  his  companions  pro- 
ceeded to  his  assistance.  While  one  of 
them  hauled  upon  the  line  and  held  it  in 
his  hands,  the  other  set  his  shoulder 
against  the  end  of  the  harpoon,  and  though 
it  was  without  a  stock,  contrived  to  strike 
it  again  into  the  fish  more  effectually  than 
at  first ! 

28.  The  whale  was  in  motion  before 
they  had  finished.  After  they  got  off  its 
back,  it  advanced  a  considerable  distance, 
breaking  the  ice  all  the  way,  and  survived 
this  novel  treatment  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 
This  daring  deed  was  of  essential  service. 
The  whale  fortunately  sunk  spontaneously 
after  it  expired ;  on  which  it  was  hauled 
out  under  the  ice  by  the  line  and  secured 
without  farther  trouble.  It  proved  a 
mighty  whale  ;  a  very  considerable  prize. 

29.  Captain  Lyons  Avhile  prosecuting 
the  whale-fishery  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
in  the  season  of  1802,  discovered  a  large 
whale  at  a  short  distance  from  the  ship. 
Four  boats  were  despatched  in  pursuit, 
and  two  of  them  succeeded  in  approaching 
it  so  closely  together,  that  two  harpoons 
were  struck  at  the  same  moment.  The 
fish  descended  a  few  fathoms  in  the  direc- 
tion of  another  of  the  boats,  which  was  on 
the  advance,  rose  accidentally  beneath  it, 
struck  it  with  its  head,  and  threw  the  boat, 
men,  and  apparatus,  about  fifteen  feet  into 
the  air.  It  was  inverted  by  the  stroke, 
and  fell  into  the  water  with  its  keel  up- 
wards. All  the  people  were  picked  up 
alive  by  the  fourth  boat,  which  was  just  at 
hand,  excepting  one  man,  who  having  got 
entangled  in  the  boat,  fell  beneath  it,  and 
was  unfortunately  drowned. 


back  ?  28.  The  boat  upset  by  a  whale  ?  29.  What 
_,  of  the  American  whale  fishery.?   30.  What  places 
10 


30.  The  whale-fishery  is  an  important 
branch  of  American  industry  and  enter- 
prise. Nothwithstanding  the  imposing 
dangers  and  severe  hardships  which  it  in 
volves,  there  are  many  who  become  at- 
tached to  the  pursuit.  The  inhabitants  of 
Nantucket  are  extensively  engaged  in  the 
whale-fishery,  and  their  ships  penetrate  to 
the  most  distant  seas  on  the  globe.  The 
town  of  New  Bedford  also  sends  forth 
many  vessels  in  pursuit  of  the  whale.  It 
employs  more  than  40,000  tons  of  ship- 
ping in  the  business. 

CHAP.  XXX. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PRODUCTIONS. 

TOBACCO. 

1.  Our  first  knowledge  of  this  plant, 
now  so  valuable,  was  through  the  Span- 
iards, about  the  year  1560.  They  brought 
it  from  Tabaco,  in  the  province  of  Yuca- 
tan, from  which  place  it  obtains  its  name. 
Sir  Walter  Ralegh  introduced  it  into  Eng- 
land. The  first  time  he  smoked  it  was 
in  orivate ;  he  had  called  his  servant  for  a 
juf^of  water ;  when  the  man  brought  it 
in,  he  saw  the  smoke  coming  out  of  his 
master's  mouth,  and  naturally  supposing 
he  was  on  fire,  he  as  naturally  threw  the 
jug  of  water  over  him,  to  put  it  out. 

2.  Virginia  has  been  famous  for  the 
successful  cultivation  of  the  tobacco-plant. 
It  has  become  the  staple  of  the  province ; 
though  it  is  said  to  be  now  giving  way  to 
a  much  wider  cultivation  of  wheat.  The 
tobacco-plant,  when  full  grown,  will  rise 
to  six  feet  in  height.  The  stem  is  pretty 
straight,  rather  hairy  and  clammy.  The 
leaves  are  of  considerable  length,  of  a  yel 
low  green ;  those  nearest  the  ground  are 
the  largest,  but  they  make  the  coarsest  to 
bacco. 

3.  As    the    plants    grow,    they   require 


in  the  U.  States  are  extensively  engaged  in  it .' 
1.  What  of  tobacco .?   2—4.  Describe  the  plant 


in' 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


much  attention,  to  keep  the  ground  be- 
tween the  rows  clear  from  weeds ;  and  to 
pull  off  all  the  lowest  and  coarsest  leaves 
iVom  the  plant  itself,  in  order  to  feed  more 


fully  the  upper  ones.  This  laborious  work 
is  done  by  negro  slaves.  When  the  leaf 
turns  brown,  the  plant  is  ripe.  The  plants, 
as  they  ripen,  are  cut  down,  and  are  laid 
in  a  heap  to  heat;  after  which  they  are 
hung  up  separately  to  dry,  in  houses  built 
on  purpose. 

4.  When  thus  prepared,  the  leaves  are 
stripped  off  the  stalks,  and  sorted  out ;  the 
liner  ones,  or  those  growing  towards  the 
top,  being  kept  by  themselves.  They  fia*e 
then  packed  up  in  hogsheads,  and  shipped 
off  for  Europe.  The  lands,  however  fer- 
tile, are  soon  impoverished  by  the  plant. 
Virginia  has,  in  some  years,  exported  sev- 
enty thousand  hogsheads  of  tobacco. 

5.  Cuba  is  celebrated  for  its  tobacco, 
particularly  its  cigars.  These  consist  of 
the  leaves  formed  into  small  rolls  for  the 
purpose  of  smoking.  Havannah  cigars 
are  usually  reckoned  the  best.  Recently, 
the  exportation  of  cigars  from  Cuba  is 
said  to  have  amounted  to  200,000  boxes  a 
year.  The  tobacco  used  in  Cuba  by  the 
lower  classes  is  chiefly  imported  from  the 
United  States. 

6.  In  some  countries,  as  England,  to- 
bacco is  principally  used  in  the  form  of 
snuff;  in  others  it  is  principally  chewed; 


but  in  one  form  or  other  it  is  every  where 
made  use  of.  So  early  as-  1624,  Popo 
Urban  VIII.  issued  a  bull  excommunicat- 
ing those  who  smoked  in  churches.  In 
Spain,  France,  and  Germany,  in  Holland, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Russia,  the  prac- 
tice of  smoking  tobacco  prevails  among 
the  rich  and  poor,  the  learned  and  the  gay. 
In  our  own  country,  smoking  is  often  car- 
ried to  excess.  The  effects  of  this  practice 
are  often  highly  injurious,  and  the  longer 
a  person  refrains  from  it  the  better. 

7.  For  a  long  time  smoking  was  forbid- 
den in  many  parts  of  New  England  under 
severe  penalties.  In  Russia  it  was  pro- 
hibited under  pain  of  having  the  nose  cut 
off.  James  the  First,  king  of  England,; 
did  not  think  it  beneath  the  royal  dignity 
to  take  up  his  pen  upon  the  subject.  H< 
accordingly  in  1603,  published  his  famous 

'  Counterblaste  to  Tobacco,'  in  which  the 
following  remarkable  passage  occurs: — 
"It  is  a  custom  loathesome  to  the  eye, 
hateful  to  the  nose,  harmful  to  the  brain,; 
dangerous  to  the  lungs,  and  in  the  black 
fume  thereof  nearest  resembling  the  horri- 
ble Stygian  smoke  of  the  pit  that  is  bot- 
tomless." 

HEMP. 

8.  Hemp  is  a  valuable  plant  which 
grows  wild  in  the  East  Indies  and  some 
parts  of  America.  In  the  United  States, 
the  hemp  has  become  naturalized  in  many 
spots,  and  is  common  in  waste  places 
along  road-sides  &c.  Though  cultivated 
to  some  extent  in  the  United  States,  it  still 
forms  a  large  article  of  import  from  Eu-! 
rope,  and  particularly  from  Russia. 

9.  Only  the  coarser  kinds  of  hemp  are 
employed  in  making  cordage ;  the  better 
sorts  being  used  for  linen,  which,  though  it 
can  never  be  made  so  fine  as  that  from 
flax,  is  yet  much  stronger,  and  equally 
susceptible  of  bleaching.  Cloths  made  of' 
hemp  have   also  this  property,  that  their 


And  its  culture.  5.  What  of  Cuba  tobacco  ?  The  1  uses  of  tobacco  ?  7.  The  prohibitions  of  its  use  ? 

« 


MISCELLANEOUS    PRODUCTIONS. 


Ill 


color  improves  by  wearing,  while  that  of 
flax  linen  decays. 

10.  The  hemp  plant,  grows  usually  to 
the  height  of  from  five  to  six  feet.  It  is 
gown  in  April,  and  becomes  fit  for  gather- 
ing in,  after  harvest.  It  bears  a  blue 
flower,  and  the  plant  is  valuable  both  for 
its  seeds,  which  are  given  to  birds  kept  in 
cages,  as  also  for  its  bark,  which,  when 
properly  treated,  becomes  a  tissue  of  tough 
long  fibres  ;  of  which  thread,  twine,  cord- 
age, and  huge  ropes,  are  made. 

11.  When  the  hemp-seed  is  ripe,  is  the 
proper  time  to  gather  the  plants ;  which  is 
done  by  plucking  them  up  by  the  roots,  in 
small  bundles.  When  the  plants  have 
been  sufficiently  dried,  they  are  threshed 
with  a  flail,  to  loosen  the  rind  in  some  de- 
gree. There  is  an  outward  husk,  which, 
being  of  no  use,  is  cleaned  off".  Then  the 
whole  plant  is  put  into  water  to  soak,  till 
the  proper  bark  begins  to  separate  from 
the  stem.  It  is  then  taken  out,  cut  into 
suitable  lengths,  and  dried.  The  fibrous 
bark  becoming  a  parcel  of  strings. 

12.  It  must  now  be  reduced  into  tow. 
This  is  done  by  a  sort  of  combing,  which 
is  called  hackling.  The  comb  in  this  case 
consists  of  several  rows  of  strong  steel 
pins,  eight  or  nine  inches  long.  This  is 
fixed  on  the  bench.  A  handful  of  these 
fibres  is  struck  among  the  pins,  and  drawn 
out  quickly,  first  one  end  of  them,  then 
the  other.  This  is  often  repeated,  and  re- 
peated with  hackling  pins  still  finer  and 
closer;  till  the  whole  is  brought  into  its 
separate  threads.  In  this  mass  of  regular, 
distinct,  and  slender  threads,  it  is  called 
tow. 

13.  The  tow  is  then  spun  into  threads, 
finer  or  coarser,  according  to  the  work  for 
which  it  is  intended.  If  intended  for  fine 
work,  as  cloth  for  shirts,  &c.  the  opera- 
tion is  much  the  same  as  for  flax. 


8   What  of  hemp  ?   9.  The  making  of  cordage  ? 
10.  The  hemp-plant?    11—13.  How  is  the  Tow 


14.  In  spinning  tow  for  twine,  or  cord- 
age, the  workman  winds  a  wisp  of  it  round 
his  waist ;  so  as  the  two  ends  of  it  may 
meet  before  him.  With  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand,  he  unites  a  few  of  these  two 
ends  of  tow  together,  and  with  the  thumb 
and  finger  of  the  right  hand,  he  draws  out 
a  sort  of  thread  from  these  united  ends, 
and  slightly  twists  it.  On  the  adroitness  of 
his  right  hand  much  depends.  But  the 
principal  operation  of  the  t\visting  is  per- 
formed by  a  wheel  which  is  turned  very 
fast :  this  turns  a  hook,  which  is  made  to 
revolve  with  considerable  rapidity  ;  and  by 
this  the  thread  he  produces  is  strongly 
twisted.  As  the  thread  becomes  longer, 
he  walks  backward,  spinning  as  he  goes, 
till  he  comes  to  the  end  of  the  walk. 

15.  Much  hemp  is  spun  for  thread,  to 
weave  into  sailcloth.  As  a  large  ship 
takes  thirteen  or  fourteen  thousand  yards 
of  canvass,  it  is  no  little  quantity  that  will 
suffice  for  our  navy.  Then  all  sorts  of 
cordage,  from  the  stout  shrouds  and  cables 
down  to  the  slenderest  clew  line,  are  made 
of  hemp.  Also  netting  of  many  diflferent 
sorts  and  sizes,  are  manufactured  from  the 
same  plant. 

16.  We  may  just  observe,  that  hempen 
cloth  bears  a  high  price,  being  exceedingly 
strong  and  durable.  Though  a  dozen 
hempen  shirts  may  cost  more  at  the  first 
purchase,  yet  they  will  last  twice  as  long 
as  Irish  linen. 

17.  The  utility  of  hemp  is  not  yet  con- 
cluded ;  for  after  it  is  completely  worn  out 
as  cloth,  the  remnants  and  rags  become  of 
great  importance  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper.  We  have  farther  to  add,  that  the 
seeds  of  hemp  are  not  only  given  to  birds 
in  cages,  but  a  very  valuable  oil  is  pressed 
from  them,  in  a  mill,  (called  rape  oil,)  of 
great  use  in  many  manufactures.  When 
this  is  done,  the  refuse  forms  a  glutinous 


prepared  ?    14.  How  spun  ?   15.  Is  it  wove  into 
Milclotb]  IP.  What  of  hempen  cloth?  17.  The 


112 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


cake  ;  which,  broken  in  pieces,  fattens  cat- 
tle very  fast. 

LEATHER,  &c. 

18.  All  leather  is  made  of  skins.  The 
raw  skins  are  worn  by  savago  nations,  who 
do  not  know  how  to  tan  it ;  but  it  soon 
gets  very  stiff  and  hard,  more  likely  to 
hurt  the  feet  than  to  save  them.  Besides, 
raw  skins  when  dry  are  but  thin,  and 
rather  brittle  than  tough.  It  has  been  dis- 
covered, that  soaking  them  in  certain  veg- 
etable liquors  seems  to  fill  them  up,  and  to 
give  them  thickness,  firmness,  and  tough- 
ness. It  also  takes  away  their  tendency  to 
putrify  and  rot.  This  requires  a  long  time, 
and  is  a  very  troublesome  process,  though 
very  useful.  It  makes  the  skin  quite  a 
different  thing  from  what  it  was. 

19.  The  vegetable  hquors,  which  hold 
what  is  called  the  tannin,  are  all  very  as- 
tringent;  they  seem  to  shrivel  and  bind 
up  all  they  act  upon.  Oak  bark  yields 
this  substance  in  the  greatest  plenty,  as 
well  as  hemlock  and  a  few  other  trees. 
You  may  see  by  the  sides  of  a  wood, 
where  they  have  been  cutting  down  many 
trees,  long  piles  of  this  bark,  which  are  of 
considerable  value,  as  sold  to  the  tanners. 

20.  Skins  are  tough  membranes,  full, 
as  it  were,  of  jelly:  if  long  boiled,  they  be- 
come jelly  and  are  so  made  into  glue. 
Galls,  oak  bark  and  such  strong  astrin- 
gents, act  upon  this  jelly  called  gelatine, 
and  harden  and  fix  it  in  the  skin,  which 
imbibes  a  gummy  substance  from  the  bark, 
and  so  forms  the  whole  into  leather. 

21.  The  first  part  of  the  process  of  tan- 
ning is  to  steep  the  skins  in  water,  to  wash 
from  them  all  the  blood  and  dirt ;  then 
the  horns,  ears,  and  tail  are  cut  off.  They 
are  next  to  be  freed  from  the  hair:  this  is 
done  by  laying  them  in  water  with  lime 
for  a  few  days.  They  are  then  taken  out 
and  drained ;  then  put  in  again  to  fresh 
lime-pits,  and  so  on,  twice  a  week,  for  sev- 


utility  of  hemp?     18.   19.    What  of  leather: 


eral  weeks.  The  skins  are  then  laid 
across  a  beam  of  wood,  when  the  hair  is 
scraped  off  with  a  proper  knife. 

22.  The  skins  are  then  iaid  in  other 
pits  carefully,  one  over  the  other,  with  a 
layer  of  tan  (which  is  the  bark  coarsely 
ground  to  powder)  between  each  skin. 
Here  they  lie  for  months,  only  being 
changed  into  fresh  pits,  with  stronger  de- 
grees of  tan,  till  it  is  incorporated  through 
the  whole  substance  of  the  skin :  it  then 
becomes  leather.  It  is  of  the  hides  of 
bullocks  we  have  been  speaking ;  and  the 
leather  so  made  is  for  the  soles  of  shoes. 


23.  The  skins,  when  sufficiently  tanned, 
are  dried,  stretched,  and  cleaned.  Cows' 
and  calves'  skins  are  taimed  on  the  same 
principles ;  but  do  not  lie  so  long  in  the 
tan. 

24.  This  process  takes  many  months: 
but  some  tanners  accomplish  the  work  in 
a  few  weeks,  by  suspending  the  skins  in 
pits  of  tan,  so  that  the  liquor  gets  at  them 
more  easily  than  when  they  lie  one  upon 
another. 

25.  Softer  leathers  are  not  imbued  with 
tan  ;  but  the  thickening  effect  is  produced 
by  repeatedly  soaking  them  in  water,  in 
which  salt  and  alum  have  been  dissolved. 

26.  The  currier's  business  follows  the 
tanner's,  in  all  skins  intended  for  upper 
leathers  of  shoes  or  the  legs  of  boots. 
This  consists  in  shaving  or  scraping  the 


20.   Skins?     21—23.  The  process  of  tanning' 


MISCELLANEOUS    PRODUCTIONS. 


113 


inside  of  the  skin,  with  a  peculiar  kind  of 
knife,  to  reduce  its  substance,  and  make  it 
of  an  even  tiiickness  ail  over ;  it  is  then 
rubbed  witli  train  oil,  or  with  oil  and  tal- 
low, to  make  it  quite  soft;  or  the  flesh 
side  is  well  waxed.  Oil  and  lamp  black 
give  it  a  color ;  or  copperas  water  black- 
ens it,  if  not  oiled. 

27.  Parchment  is  not  manufactured  at 
the  tanner's  ;  but,  as  it  is  made  of  skins, 
you  may  as  well  learn  something  of  it 
here. 

28.  The  skin,  either  of  a  sheep  or  a 
goat,  will  do  for  parchment.  It  must  be 
soaked  in  the  lime-pit,  as  before  ;  it  is  then 
stretched  on  a  frame,  that  it  may  be  con- 
veniently scraped  with  an  iron,  to  get  off 
the  fleshy  parts ;  it  is  then  sprinkled  with 
chalk  dust,  and  rubbed  with  pumice  stone. 
This  scraping  and  chalking  are  done  fre- 
quently to  get  it  quite  thin,  and  the  chalk 
is  well  rubbed  into  its  substance ;  it  is 
then  cut  square,  and  the  edges  neat,  and 
is  fit  to  write  upon.  Parchment  will  last 
for  a  very  long  time  ;  it  is,  therefore,  use- 
ful for  deeds,  records,  and  any  writing  in- 
tended for  those  who  come  long  after  us. 
It  was  invented  at  Pergamos,  and  from 
thence  it  was  callen  pergamenta,  now 
parchment. 

29.  Vellum  is  the  skin  of  very  young 
calves,  treated  in  the  same  manner  ;  this  is 
finer  and  neater,  and  fit,  not  only  for  writ- 
ing, but  for  drawing  on. 

30.  All  the  edges  and  cuttings  of  parch- 
ment are  useful  to  make  glue.  The  skins 
of  any  animals  become  a  jelly  with  long 
boihng;  which  jelly,  when  cold,  is  quite 
hard.  But  the  whole  skins  are  too  valu- 
able ;  therefore,  all  the  odd  bits  and  cut- 
tings which  come  off,  and  all  about  the 
head  and  feet,  which  are  not  worth  mak- 
ing into  leather,  are  boiled  into  glue. 

31.  Skins,  when  well  tanned  and  quite 


25.  What  of  softer  leathers  ?    26.  What  is  the 
carrier's  business  ?  27.  28.  What  of  parchment  ? 
8 


clean,  are  dyed  of  many  beautiful  colors. 
Kid  gloves  for  the  ladies  must  be  all  man- 
ner of  delicate  colors,  straw,  pink,  light 
blue,  &c.  Gentlemen's  gloves  are  either 
plain  yellow,  or  various  greenish  shades. 
Then  Morocco  leather  is  a  bright  scarlet. 
The  dying  of  skins  is  conducted  on  much 
the  same  principles  as  the  dying  of  wool- 
len. The  skin  must  first  be  prepared  by 
a  proper  mordant,  and  then  it  will  imbibe 
the  coloring  material  from  the  liquid,  as 
desired. 

32.  The  uses  of  leather  are  well  known. 
Besides  being  manufactured  into  shoes, 
boots,  &c.,  it  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of 
other  purposes.  There  are  few  trades 
more  useful  than  that  of  the  shoe-maker, 
and  perhaps  not  many  that  are  more  profit- 
able, when  it  is  carried  on  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  The  town  of  Lynn  in  Massa- 
chusetts is  celebrated  for  its  manufacture 
of  shoes.  Great  numbers  are  annually 
exported  to  the  West  Indies. 

HIDES. 

33.  Hides  signify,  generally,  the  skins 
of  beasts  ;  but  the  term  is  more  particular 
ly  applied  to  those  of  large  cattle  ;  such  as 
bullocks,  cows,  horses  &c.  Hides  are 
either  raw  or  green;  that  is,  the  same  as 
when  taken  off  the  carcass,  or  salted  and 
seasoned,  in  which  case  they  are  dressed 
with  salt,  alum  and  saltpetre,  to  prevent 
them  from  putrefying  ;  or  they  are  cured 
or  tanned.  The  hides  of  South  America 
are  in  the  highest  repute,  and  vast  quanti- 
ties of  them  are  annually  imported  into 
this  country  and  sent  to  Europe. 

CHAP.  XXXI. 

MISCELLANEOUS   PRODUCTIONS.— Co ntinueo 

PAPER. 
1.  The  manufacture  of  })aper  was  not 
known  by  the  ancients.     The   Egyptians 


29.  Vellum.?   30.    Glue.?    31.   The  coloring  of 
skins.?   32.  Shoes.?  33.  Hides.? 


114 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


wrote  upon  rolls  of  linen,  and  we  have 
gome  of  them  about  their  mummies,  at 
this  very  day,  on  which  the  inscriptions 
are  very  legible.  A  later  invention  of  the 
Egyptians  spread  for  many  years  over  the 
literary  world  :  this  was  forming  the  inner 
bark  of  the  rush  papyrus  into  a  smooth 
sheet.  From  the  term  papyrus  comes  our 
modern  name,  paper. 

2.  Paper  from  this  plant  was  in  use  till 
about  the  tenth  century,  when  cotton  w-as 
beaten  into  a  pulp,  and  spread  out  for  pa- 
per. 

3.  Who  it  was  that- first  applied  linen 
rags  to  the  making  of  paper  we  do  not 
know.  In  the  thirteenth  century  it  began 
to  come  into  use ;  but  we  are  to  this  day 
under  great  obligation  to  the  inventor. 
The  art  of  printing  would  have  been  of 
little  avail,  had  not  a  material  for  printing 
on  been  discovered,  sufficiently  plentiful, 
cheap,  and  neat,  for  the  purpose. 

4.  The  material  of  which  paper  is  now 
made,  is  only  the  rags  and  worn-out 
shreds  of  linen ;  what  were  of  no  use ; 
what  every  tidy  housewife  used  to  burn 
out  of  the  way,  that  they  might  not  make 
a  litter.  These  rags  are  now  bought  up 
by  pedlers,  who  travel  all  over  the  coun- 
try, and  collect  them  in  small  quantities. 
They  then  come  into  the  hands  of  the  rag 
merchant,  who  is  a  considerable  dealer, 
and  he  sells  them  to  the  paper-maker. 

5.  The  first  process  is  to  sort  these  rags, 
according  to  their  fineness  or  coarseness ; 
this  is  done  in  a  room  where  are  a  number 
of  women  seated,  with  each  a  parcel  of 
divisions  before  her,  five  or  six,  into  which 
she  casts  each  separate  piece,  as  she  sorts 
them. 

6.  They  are  then  to  be  cleansed,  which 
is  done  by  washing  them  well  with  hot 
water,  by  a  mill. 


1.  Was  the  manufacture  of  paper  known  by 
the  ancients  ?  What  of  the  Egyptian  papyrus  ? 
2.  When  was  paper  made  from  cotton  ?  3.  From 


7.  The  reducing  them  to  shreds,  and  a 
pulp,  used  to  be  by  pounding  them ;  it  is 
now  done  by  cutting  them.  A  large  roll 
er,  full  of  knives,  turns  round  in  a  trough 
which  trough  is  also  stuck  full  of  similar 
blades,  facing  the  other  way ;  the  rags  arc 
put  in,  with  a  proper  quantity  of  water. 
As  the  roller,  or  cylinder,  turns  with  great 
rapidity,  it  cuts  every  thing  minutely  fine, 
to  a  pulp,  in  a  very  little  time.  This  is 
called  half  stuff. 

8.  Frequently,  in  this  stage  of  the  pro- 
cess, the  rags  are  bleached,  to  take  out  all 
stains  and  color  from  them,  and  make 
them  perfectly  white ;  this  bleaching  con 
sists  in  exposing  them  to  the  action  of  a 
sulphuric  gas,  which  quickly  discharges  all 


color. 


The  rags  must  be   taken    out   as 


ed,  else  this  same  gas  would  destroy  the 
rags  themselves. 

9.  When  the  pulp  is  thoroughly  com 
minuted  and  bleached,  it  is  put  into  a  cis- 
tern or  vat,  mingled  with  such  a  quantity 
of  water  as  will  suit  for  dipping  out. 

10.  The  next  process  is  called  couching. 
A  mould,  as  it  is  termed,  is  a  sort  of 
sieve ;  consisting  of  a  square  frame,  about 
an  inch  deep,  with  a  bottom  of  brass  wires 
very  closely  placed.  This  is  dipped  into 
the  vat,  and  becomes  filled  with  pulp. 
The  water  drains  away  through  the  inter- 
stices of  the  wires,  and  leaves  a  flat  thin 
layer  of  pulp.  The  marks  of  the  wires 
may  be  seen,  if  paper  is  held  up  to  the 
light.  This  layer  is  carefully  taken  out, 
and  placed  on  a  square  of  felt,  or  coarse 
cloth.  Another  sheet,  and  another  piece 
of  felt  are  placed  on,  and  on,  till  the  heap 
contains  six  quires,  or  144  sheets  of  paper, 
which  is  called  a  post.  The  weight  of  tho 
heap  presses  the  sheets  a  little ;  but  when 
a  post  is  made,  the  whole  is  smartly  press- 


linen  ?  4.  What  is  the  material  of  which  paper 
is  now  made  ?  6.  7.  When  cleansed  how  are 
the  rags  reduced  to  shreds  ?    8.  How  bleached  f 


MISCELLANEOUS    PRODUCTIONS. 


115 


ed,  felts  and  all,  which  squeezes  out  most 
of  the  superfluous  water.  Sheet  by  sheet 
IS  then  separated  from  the  felts  and  laid 
one  on  another.  They  are  pressed  again, 
and  then  hung  up  to  dry. 

11.  The  next  operation  is  sizing,  that  is, 
saturating  them  with  a  weak  sort  of  glue, 
mixed  with  alum,  into  which,  as  hot  as  the 
liand  can  bear,  each  sheet  is  dipped.  This 
makes  it  hold  ink ;  otherwise  the  ink 
would  run,  just  as  it  does  if  you  try  to 
write  on  blotting  paper. 

12.  The' sheets  are  hung  up  to  dry 
again.  They  are  frequently  pressed,  and 
at  last  with  great  violence,  to  make  them 
flat  and  smooth.  The  damaged  sheets  are 
then  picked  out,  which  make  the  two  out- 
side quires.  Twenty-four  sheets  make  a 
quire ;  and  twenty  quires,  which  make  a 
ream,  are  tied  up  together,  in  wrappers,  for 
sale. 

13.  This  is  the  process  for  fine  writing- 
paper.  It  is  made  of  various  sizes,  and  of 
various  qualities,  for  printing,  writing,  or 
drawing.  It  is  also  made  of  various  de- 
grees of  fineness  :  as,  white,  brown,  blue, 
and  common  brown  paper..  The  coarser 
sorts  are  made  of  coarser  materials,  even 
of  old  ropes,  and  sacking. 

14.  Papers  are  dyed  of  various  colors, 
for  the  covers  of  magazines  and  pamph- 
lets. Marbled  paper  is  very  beautiful: 
the  manner  of  making  it  is  as  follows :  a 
trough  is  provided,  of  the  size  of  the  paper 
to  be  marbled;  this  is  filled  with  water 
strongly  saturated  with  gum  arable.  Dif- 
ferent colors  are   then    sprinkled    on   the 

^surface  of  this  gum  water,  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  operator.  These  colors 
spread  of  themselves  on  the  flat  surface 
of  the  liquor;  the  sheet  of  paper  is  then 
adroitly  laid  on  the  flat  surface,  when  it 
absorbs  all  the  colors  spread  there.     It  is 


10.  What  is  the  process  of  couching  ?  11., Sizing  ? 
12.  How  many  sheets  make  a  quire  ?  How  many 
quires  a  ream  ?  14.  What  of  the  coloring  of  pa- 


taken  off  carefully,  hung  up  to  dry,  and 
pohshed  with  a  rubber. 
BOOKS. 

15.  Books  are  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing classes,  according  to  the  mode  in 
which  the  sheets  of  the  paper  on  which 
they  are  printed,  are  folded  :  namely,/oZio, 
when  the  sheet  is  folded  into  two  leaves; 
quai'to,  when  folded  into  four ;  octavo  Avhen 
folded  into  eight ;  duodecimo,  when  the 
sheet  is  folded  into  twelve  &c.  In  mak- 
ing these  classifications,  no  attention  is 
paid  to  the  size  of  the  sheet. 

16.  Copy-right  is  the  right  which  the 
authors  or  compilers  of  books,  or  treatises 
claim  to  the  exclusive  privilege  of  printing 
and  publishing  them.  Musical  compo- 
sitions, engravings,  maps,  sculptures,  mod- 
els, &c.  enjoy  a  similar  protection. 

17.  The  principal  marts  for  books  in 
the  United  States  are  New  York,  Boston 
and  Philadelphia.  The  number  of  new 
publications  that  issue  from  the  presses  of 
these  three  cities  is  far  greater  than  that 
which  appears  in  all  the  rest  of  the  country. 

18.  London  is  the  great  centre  of  the 
British  book  trade.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  about  1,500  volumes  of  new  publica- 
tions are  annually  produced  in  Great  Bri- 
tain. 

SPONGE. 

19.  Sponge  is  a  soft,  light,  very  porous 
and  compressible  substance,  readily  im- 
bibing water  -and  as  readily  giving  it  out 
again.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a 
vegetable  production,  but  it  has  lately  been 
found  to  be  an  animal  substance.  The 
inhabitants  in  several  of  the  Greek  islands 
have  been  trained  from  their  infancy  to 
dive  for  sponges.  They  adhere  firmly  to 
the  bottom;  and  are  not  detatched  without 
a  good  deal  of  trouble.  The  extraordina- 
ry clearness  of  the  waters  aids  the  divers. 


pers?  15.  Into  what  classes  are  books  divided.' 
16.  What  of  copy -right?  17.  Books  in  the  U. 
States  ?  18.  The  British  book-trade  ?  19.  Sponge  ? 


116 


BOOK    or    C0M3IERCE. 


CHAP.  XXXII. 


MISCELLANEOUS.— CONTINUED. 

PINS. 

1.  The  pins  most  in  esteem  are  those 
of  England.  Pins  are  made  of  brass, 
drawn  out"  into  wire.  Do  you  know  iiow 
that  is  done  ?  The  bar  of  metal  is  drawn 
through  a  hole  in  an  iron  plate,  which  is 
rather  too  small  for  it ;  but  the  force  em- 
ployed by  turning  a  wheel  with  great  velo- 
city, drags  it  through,  especially  as  it  is 
but  a  little  smaller.  It  is  then  dragged 
through  another  hole,  a  little  smaller  than 
it  now  is ;  and  so  on,  till  the  wire  becomes 
small  enough.  What  it  thus  loses  in 
thickness,  it  gains  in  length,  sq  that  noth- 
mg  is  lost  by  the  operation,  and  it  is  done 
with  great  rapidity. 

2.  It  must  •  then  be  rendered  quite 
straight :  to  effect  this,  it  is  drawn  again 
between  iron  pins,  firmly  fixed,  so  as  to 
leave  a  straight  path  between  the  rows. 

3  It  is  then  cut  into  proper  lengths, 
each  sufficient  to  make  six  pins. 

4.  They  must  now  be  sharpened  to 
their  points.  Boys  sit,  with  each  a  couple 
of  grindstones  before  him,  one  coarse  and 
one  fine,  which  are  turned  by  a  wheel. 
The  boy  takes  up  a  handful  of  these 
lengths  of  wire,  and  claps  all  their  ends 
flat  against  the  coarse  grindstone  ;  taking 
care  to  keep  them  all  turning  round  the 
while  between  his  fingers.  •>  He  then  puts 
them  to  the  finer  stone,  and  afterwards 
serves  the  other  ends  the  same :  this  is 
done  quicker  than  one  can  tell  you  about 
it ;  for  a  lad  can  point  thus,  16,000  pins 
in  an  hour's  time. 

5.  The  length  of  a  pin  is  then  taken  oflT 
each  end  by  another  hand  ;  when  the  re- 1 
maining  lengths  are  ground  again  to  points, 
and  shortened  again,  till  the  six  pin  lengths 
are  taken  off. 

1. — 5.  Describe  the  manufacture  of  pins.  6. 
How  is  the  heading  of  pins  performed  .''  7.  How 


6.  But  the  heading  of  pins  is  one  of  the 
most  curious  parts  of  the  business:  it  is 
called  head  spinning.  Suppose  yourself  in 
a  pin  manufactory  and  observe  that  girl : 
you  see  a  straigiit  wire  ;  by  a  twirl  of  the 
wheel  she  twists  another  wire  around  it, 
to  a  considerable  length,  with  the  turns 
quite  close  together,  so  that  you  do  not  see 
the  straight  wire.  When  that  straight 
wire  is  drawn  out,  the  twisted  part  is  hol- 
low;  so  that  you  might  see  through  it. 
This  long  string  of  wire  is  cut,  two  twists 
at  a  time,  into  bits ;  these  are  to  make 
heads  for  the  pins ;  but  they  must  be  soft- 
ened, this  is  done  by  heating  them  red 
hot ;  they*  are  then  cooled.  And  now, 
you  sec,  a  heap  of  them  in  a  dish  is  placed 
before  each  of  these  children.  Now,  mind 
what  tools  they  have.  Each  has  a  little 
anvil  before  him,  and  a  hammer  which  he 
works — that  is,  causes  to  strike  upon  the 
anvil — with  his  foot.  Now  watch  him  ; 
see  how  cleverly  he  thrusts  the  blunt  end 
of  his  pin  into  one  of  these  hollow  twists, 
which  lie  before  him.  And  there,  with  a 
blow  of  his  hammer,  he  has  fastened  it 
on ;  and  has  got  another  ready,  quicker 
than  you  can  discern.  You  are  only  afraid 
he  should  bruise  his  own  fingers,  by  hit- 
ting so  quick. 

7.  When  a  pin  is  made,  it  is  still  only 
yellow  brass  ;  and  does  not  look  nice  and 
neat,  fit  for  a  lady's  use.  To  give  it 
whiteness,  a  solution  of  tin  is  prepared 
with  wine  lees.  After  a  while  the  tin 
leaves  the  liquid,  and  fastens  upon  tho 
brass.  Still  it  looks  very  dull.  To  polish 
it  therefore,  they  put  numbers  of  them  in- 
to a  vessel  of  bran,  which  is  turned 
round  with  great'  velocity.  This  rubs 
them,  and  they  are  found  perfectly  bright. 
The  pins  must  now  be  regularly  and  neat- 
ly stuck  in  papers ;  so  many  in  a  row,  and 
in  this  state  they  are  ready  for  sale. 


are  pins  polished  ?    What  is  the  last  operation  to 
be  performed  ? 


MISCELLANEOUS    PRODUCTIONS. 


117 


GUNPOWDER. 

8.  Before  gunpowder  was  invented,  or 
ut  least  brought  into  military  use,  the 
sword,  and  the  spear,  and  the  arrow,  deci- 
ded every  battle :  the  arrow  slew  at  a  dis- 
tance, but  the  sword  and  spear  brought 
men  hand  to  hand  ;  in  tliis  case  the  fight 
was  not  ended  till  one  or  both  of  the  com- 
batants was  killed.  Such  battles  were  al- 
ways very  bloody.  It  was  not  till  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  that 
gunpowder  was  applied  to  war.  It  was 
loudly  cried  out  against  at  first,  as  contrary 
to  fair  fighting.  However,  the  use  of  it 
gained  ground  :  it  is  now  universal,  and  its 
use  has  changed  the  nature  of  all  warfare, 
almost  always  confining  it  to  a  distance  ; 
by  which  war  is  rendered  less  destructive, 
not  one  bullet  in  10,000  taking  effect.  It 
has  changed  too  the  nature  of  all  fortifica- 
tion ;  for  a  high  tower  is  now  no  defence, 
but  an  incumbrance.  All  fortifications  at 
this  time  are  flat,  and  almost  level  with 
the  ground. 

9.  Gunpowder  is  a  mixture  of  sulphur 
and  charcoal,  with  nitre,  or  saltpetre. 
The  sulphur  easily  takes  fire  with  a  spark ; 
the  charcoal  holds  the  fire,  and  makes  it 
very  fierce ;  and  the  saltpetre,  being  de- 
composed by  the  fire,  explodes.  The  gases 
generated  hereby,  having  an  amazing  ex- 
pansive force,  will  rend  any  thing  to  pieces 
in  which  they  are  enclosed.  Now,  a  gun 
made  very  strong  to  bear  this  explosion, 
except  towards  the  muzzle,  where  there  is 
no  opposition  ;  finding  vent  that  way,  its 
explosion  comes  out  at  the  mouth,  and 
drives  every  thing  before  it.  The  ball, 
being  placed  there  on  purpose,  is  violently 
driven  out ;  and  passing  through  so  long  a 
tube,  it  takes  the  direction  thus  given  to 
it,  and  strikes  against  what  it  hits  with 
great  violence ;  so  that  a  bullet  will  enter 
d  man's  body,  and  make  a  grievous  wound, 
and  if  it  cuts  any  vital  part,  it  kills  him  in- 


8.    What   of  gunpowder  ?  9.  Its  manufacture ; 


stantly.  The  ball  from  a  cannon,  striking 
against  a  wall,  will  batter  it  down.  A 
musket,  it  is  said,  will  carry  a  mile.  Ships, 
which  have  long  guns,  sometimes  begin  to 
fire  at  three  miles'  distance. 

10.  The  three  ingredients,  sulphur, 
charcoal,  and  nitre,  must  be  separately 
pounded  into  a  very  fine  powder ;  they 
must  then  be  mixed  thoroughly  together ; 
in  doing  which  they  are  kept  wet,  that 
they  may  not  take  fire,  with  water,  or 
vinegar,  or  brandy,  &c.  When  mixed, 
and  the  composition  is  a  sort  of  paste,  it  is 
forced  through  a  coarse  sieve,  by  which  it 
is  brought  into  grains,  which  is  the  best 
state  for  explosion. 

11.  It  happens  every  now  and  then,  that 
the  powder  mills  blow  up  ;  as  all  who  are 
are  in  them  perish,  we  can  never  tell  how 
it  happened  ;  we  only  know,  that  if  by  a 
nail  in  the  mixture,  or  any  how  else,  a 
spark  of  fire  comes  in  among  the  powder, 
the  explosion  is  instantaneous  and  irresis- 
tible. 

12.  Children  who  are  very  fond  of  play- 
ing with  gunpowder,  should  not  be  suffered 
to  do  it,  without  some  older  person  to  take 
care.  Many  have  had  their  eyes  blown 
out,  and  been  even  killed,  by  accidents,  of 
which  they  cannot  be  aware.  To  leave 
guns  or  pistols  within  their  reach,  is  very 
wrong;  children  should  never  touch  them; 
many  a  little  boy  has  killed  himself  or  his 
sister,  by  touching  fire  arms  which  were 
loaded,  and  went  off  by  accident. 

ISINGLASS. 

13.  Isinglass  is  one  of  the  purest  and 
finest  of  the  animal  glues.  It  is  a  product, 
the  preparation  of  which  is  almost  peculiar 
to  Russia.  It  is  made  of  the  air-biadders 
and  sounds  of  different  kinds  offish  which 
are  found  in  the  large  rivers  which  fall  in- 
to the  North  Sea  and  the  Caspian.  The 
best  isinglass  is  usually  rolled  in  little 
ringlets ;  the  second  sort  is  laid  together 


11.  Accidents   by  gunpowder .'   12.  The  danger 


xl8 


BOOK  or    COMMERCE. 


like  the  leaves  of  a  book ;  and  the  com- 
mon sort  is  dried  without  any  care. 
When  fine,  it  is  of  a  white  color,  ahnost 
transparent  and  dry.  It  dissolves  readily 
in  boiling  water,  and  is  much  used  in 
cookery.  It  is  also  used  in  fining  liquors 
of  the  fermented  kind,  and  in  making 
mock  pearls,  stiffening  linens,  silks,  gauzes, 
&c.  Boiled  in  milk  it  forms  a  mild,  nutri- 
tious jelly,  and  is  thus  sometimes  employed 
medicinally.  This,  when  flavored  by  the  art 
of  the  cook,  is  the  blanc  mange  of  our  tables. 
HOPS. 

14.  The  hop  is  a  perennial  plant  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties.  When 
the  hops  are  picked,  they  must  be  well 
dried  in  a  kiln,  on  a  hair  cloth.  They  are 
laid  nearly  a  foot  thick,  and  will  take  ten 
or  twelve  hours  to  dry  them.  When  they 
grow  pretty  warm,  it  is  a  good  way  to  let 
down  a  tin  cover  over  the  whole  mass, 
which  reflects  the  heat  back  again  on  the 
tops,  and  helps  to  dry  the  upper  part  more 
equally.  W^hen  they  have  been  dried 
about  three  weeks,  they  should  be  put  up 
in  bags,  and  this  is  done  as  follows:  a 
hole  is  cut  in  a  floor,  and  a  bag  is  fiisteued 
to  its  opening ;  a  man  then  gets  into  the 
bag,  and  treads  the  hops  down  very  close, 
while  another  man  keeps  putting  in,  by 
little  and  little,  as  many  as  it  will  hold. 
They  are  now  ready  for  the  market ;  yet  if 
vvell  prepared,  they  will  keep  some  years, 
and  be  as  good  as  ever. 

15.  When  hops  were  first  used  in  brew- 
ing, there  was  a  great  outcry  against  them  ; 
and  in  many  places  people  were  forbidden 
to  use  that  poisonous  weed,  the  hop. 
However,  it  has  been  found  by  experience, 
that  the  hop  not  only  gives  a  pleasant  bit- 
ter to  ale,  but,  by  breaking  its  viscidity, 
makes  it  more  wholesome ;  and,  also,  by 
preventing  its  turning  sour,  enables  it  to 
keep  longer. 


of   playing     with    it?    13.  What    of  isinglass. 
14.    Hops  ?   15.    Their  first  use  ?    16.  What  of 


BRICKS. 

16.  Besides  the  wonderful  productions 
of  which  the  land  is  the  fruitful  source, 
the  very  substance  of  the  soil  itself  is  , 
formed,  by  the  ingenuity  of  man,  into 
many  important  and  useful  articles.  One 
of  the  coarsest,  and  perhaps  the  most  ear- 
ly inventions  of  this  nature,  was  to  make 

it  into  bricks.  At  first,  by  reason  of  the 
little  knowledge  among  mankind,  and  also 
possibly  by  the  nature  of  the  climate, 
bricks  were  only  dried  in  the  sun.  In  the 
Babylonian  regions,  where  the  invention 
began,  and,  indeed,  all  around,  in  those 
warm  countries,  they  form  their  bricks  in 
that  manner  to  this  day  ;  yet  the  burning 
them  is  also  very  ancient. 

17.  We  read,  Gen.  xi.  1 — 4,  that  when, 
after  the  flood,  the  tribes  of  men  journey- 
ed eastward,  they  found  the  plains  of  Shi- 
mar  fertile  and  convenient ;  and  they  said, 
"Go  to  now,  let  us  build  a  city,  and  a 
tower  whose  top  may  reach  to  heaven. 
They  had  brick  for  stone,  which  they 
burnt  thoroughly,  and  slime  (that  is  bitu- 
men) had  they  for  mortar."  This  was  the 
famous  Tower  of  Babel.  And  although 
the  tribes  and  families  of  Noah's  sons  were 
scattered  by  God  for  their  profane  at- 
tempt, yet  the  spot  was  still  preferred  by 
some,  and  it  became  afterwards  the  grand 
city,  Babylon.  This  city  has  indeed  long 
been  destroyed,  according  to  prophecy; 
yet  among  the  heaps  of  ruins,  which  are 
all  that  now  remain  of  it,  are  found  bricks 
of  considerable  size,  and  in  a  state  of 
hardness  and  preservation. 

18.  The  children  of  Israel,  too,  Avere  in 
Egypt  kept  at  hard  labour  in  this  same 
occupation  ;  and  by  the  tyranny  of  Pha- 
raoh were  obliged  to  make  bricks  without 
straw. 

19.  In  many  countries,  stone  is  scarce 
and  dear,  so  that  bricks  are    made  use  of, 


bricks  ?  1 7—19.  Are  they  mentioned  in  the  bible  .- 
20    Of  what  are  they  composed  ?  21.  How  aro 


MISCELLANEOUS    PRODUCTIONS. 


119 


not  only  for  common  habitations,  but  for 
some  grand  and  costly  buildings. 

20.  Bricks  are  composed  of  earth  made 
into  squarish  lumps,  and,  by  burning,  half 
vitrified  and  made  hard. — The  best  earth 
for  this  purpose  is  a  clay  rather  red  in  its 
color,  and  soft  to  the  touch ;  a  little  sandy, 
but  not  too  much  so.  Almost  any  earth 
that  is  free  from  stones  will  do  very  well ; 
though  some  sorts  are  far  preferable  to 
others. 

21.  Although  bricks  may  be  manufac- 
tured from  almost  any  kind  of  earth,  yet 
there  is  much  preparation  necessary  to 
make  them  good  and  durable.  One  of  the 
first  and  most  important  operations  is  to 
knead,  cr  mix  up,  and  work  the  clay  into 
an  uniform  and  pliable  mass  :  such  as  will 
have  no  lumps,  but  is  quite  smooth.  This 
kneading,  too,  makes  the  clay  tough-  and 
gluey.  This  is  done  in  small  quantities, 
by  riding  a  horse  round  and  round  in  it, 
who  treads  it  with  his  feet.  But  some- 
times, a  mill  is  erected,  which  is  turned 
by  a  horse,  and  grinds  and  mixes  the  ma- 
terials thoroughly. 

22.  The  clay  should  be  dug,  or  cast, 
before  the  winter  sets  in  ;  and,  after  en- 
during the  frosts,  it  will  in  the  spring  be 
fit  for  tempering  and  making  up :  indeed, 
if  dug  two  years  before  used,  it  is  better 
still. 

23.  Bricks  are  shaped  in  a  wooden 
mould,  an  inch  larger  than  the  brick  is 
wanted  to  be,  as  it  shrinks  in  burning. 
The  man  takes  a  lump  of  clay,  and  forci- 
bly thrusts  it  into  the  mould,  so  as  to 
make  it  fill  the  corners.  He  presses  it  in 
with  his  knuckles,  and  then,  by  the 
straight  edge  of  a  board,  he  strikes  it  over 
the  top,  and  scrapes  off  all  the  clay  which 
was  more  than  enough  to  fill  the  mould. 
This  done,  he  shakes  it  out,  and  forms 
another.     One  is  made  in  less  time  than 


they  prepared  ?  22.  How   should  the  clay  be  ? 
23.  How  are  they  shaped  ?  24.  What  precautions 


we  have  taken  to  tell  how  it  is  done  ;  for 
a  good  workman,  who  works  early  and 
late,  will  mould  five  thousand  in  one  day's 
work. 

24.  Boys  then,  on  latticed  barrows, 
wheel  a  parcel  of  them  away,  to  that  part 
of  the  field  where  they  are  to  dry.  They 
are  placed  so  as  not  to  touch  each  other, 
in  long  ranges,  called  hacks,  which  are 
loosely  covered  with  straw,  that  neither 
the  sun  may  dry  them  too  fast,  nor  the 
rain  prevent  them  from  drying.  After  a 
few  days  drying  they  are  placed  afresh 
and  turned,  so  tJiat  all  sides  may  get  the 
wind  equally. 

25.  When  the  bricks  are  pretty  well 
dried,  they  are  ready  for  burning.  The 
burning  is  done  in  the  country  chiefly  in 
kilns  M'^hich  are  composed  of  four  walls, 
open  at  top.  In  the  hollow  within  the 
bricks  are  placed,  each  at  a  distance  from 
its  neighbors,  so  that  when  a  fire  is  kin- 
dled at  bottom  it  rises  through  all  these 
interstices,  and  bakes  the  whole  in  about 
two  days  and  nights ;  often  20,000  at 
once. 

26.  Tiles  are  thin  bricks,  made  in  mucli 
the  same  way,  only  the  earth  should  be 
better.  Some  are  flat,  and  some  twisted, 
called  pantiles.  As  bricks  are  used  for 
building  the  walls  of  houses,  tiles  are  used 
for  covering  their  roofs. 

STARCH. 

27.  Starch  is  a  substance  obtained  from 
vegetables.  It  is  generally  of  a  fine  white 
color,  has  scarcely  any  smell,  and  very 
little  taste.  When  kej)t  dry,  it  continues 
for  a  long  time  uninjured,  though  exposed 
to  the  air.  It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water  ; 
but  combines  with  boiling  water — forming 
with  it  a  kind  of  jelly.  Potatoe  starch 
goes  a  good  deal  further  than  wheat  starch 
— a  less  quantity  of  it  sufficing  to  form  a 
paste  of  equal  thickness,  with  water. 


are  used   in  drying  them?  25.  How  are  they 
burned  ?  What  are  tiles  ?  27.  What  of  starch  ? 


120 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


PEARL  ASHES. 

28.  Pearl  aslius  are  prepared  by  mix- 
ing the  ashes  of  burnt  wood  with  water, 
evaporating  the  clear  ley,  and  calcining 
them  for  a  considerable  time  in  an  oven 
moderately  hot.  The  goodness  of  pearl- 
ashes  is  distinguished  by  their  strong 
body,  and  an  uniform  white  appearance : 
and  t'heir  value  decreases  in  proportion  as 
they  assume  a  blue  cast.  Pearl-ashes  are 
chiefly  prepared  in  North  America,  Hun- 
gary, Poland  and  Russia.  TJiey  are  much 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  as  also 
for  bleaching. 

HORSES. 

29.  The  horse  is  known  to  most  na- 
tions as  the  most  useful  and  manageable 
of  those  animals  which  live  under  the 
sway  of  man.  Besides  his  invaluable  ser- 
vices whilst  alive,  after  death  his  skin  is 
used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  hair 
of  his  mane  and  tail  is  employed  for 
chair-bottoms,  mattrasses,  &c.  His  flesh 
although  rejected  among  civilized  nations, 
is  much  used  among  several  rude  tribes. 
The  life  of  the  horse,  when  not  shortened 
by  ill-usage,  extends  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  years.  The  Arabian  horses  are  the 
most  esteemed  for  beauty  and  speed. 

30.  Wild  horses  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  Texas  and  South  America.  They 
are  supposed  to  be  descendants  of  those 
which  were  originally  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  herds  of  wild  horses 
present  a  beautiful  spectacle  when  they 
are  alarmed  in  their  native  wilds  by  the 
intrusion  of  an  army.  Instead  of  flying, 
as  the  deer  and  other  timid  animals,  they 
gallop  round  in  compact  masses  of  many 
thousands,  apparently  for  the  purpose 
of  reconnoitring  the  strangers;  and  fre- 
quently advance  boldly  to  within  a  few 
yards  of  the  line  of  march,  where  they 
halt  to   gaze   at  the  troops,  snorting  and 


28.  Pearl-ashes.?    29,  What  of  horses .?  30.  Wild 
aotBQa?   31.  The  ass? 


showing  every  sign  of  astonishment  and 
di.spleasure,  especially  at  sight  of  the  ca- 
valry. These  droves  are  always  headed 
by  some  fine  looking  old  bashaws,  whose 
flowing  manes  and  tails  plainly  show  that 
they  have  never  been  subject  to  man's 
control ;  and  in  the  rear  the  mares  and 
colts  follow. 

THE  ASS. 
31.  We  may  as  well  here  speak  of  that 
much  despised  and  much  abused  animal 
— the  ass.  Could  we  see  him  in  his  na- 
tive state,  in  the  warm  climates  of  Africa 
we  should  find  him  all  life  and  spirit ;  but 
in  a  cold  country,  he  is  rather  dull  and 
heavy.  As  his  lot  is  to  be  the  property  of 
the  poor,  he  partakes  with  them  in  their 
wants,  and  sufl^ers  under  their  ignorance 
and  brutality.  It  is  true,  he  will  feed  upon 
plants  which  horses  refuse,  esteeming  a  m 
thistle,  with  its  prickles,  much  as  we  do  a  1 
sallad,  when  heightened  with  mustard  and 
vinegar.  But  he  does  not  always  get  his 
fill,  ev,en  of  such  homely  fare  :  and  in  win- 
ter, when  the  hedges  fail  him,  he  is  but 
poorly  provided  with  hay ;  as  to  corn,  he 
never  thinks  of  it.  Though  easily  fed, 
yet  the  ass  is  peculiarly  dainty  in  drink- 
ing ;  none  but  the  clearest  waters  will  he 
touch.  He  is  as  careful  too,  not  to  wet 
feet,  but  will  go  round  a  puddle  rather 
than  through  it,  even  when  loaded.  It 
has  been  said,  that  were  a  higher  class  to 
take  him  in  hand,  and  rear  him  with  gen- 
tleness and  care,  the  ass  would  be  more 
docile  and  more  serviceable. 

CHAP.  XXXIII.  ' 

MODES  OF  CONVEYANCE. 

1.  The  most  ancient  mode  of  conducting 
the  traffic  of  distant  nations,  was  by  cara- 
vans. Of  this  nation  was  the  company  of 
Midianites  or  Ishmaelites,  to  whom  Joseph 


1.  What  was  the  most  ancient  mode  of  con- 
ducting the  traffic  of  distant  nations .'    2.  What 


MISCELLANEOUS  PRODUCTIONS. 


121 


was  sold,  {Genesis  xxxvil'.  28.)  Such  ca- 
ravans are  in  use  at  the  present  day,  and 
consist  sometimes  of  forty  thousand  per- 
sons, sometimes  almost  double  that  num- 
ber, besides  six  or  seven  thousand  camels, 
and  some  hundred  horses.  Those,  which 
are  called  heavy  caravans,  have  in  them 
elephants  also. 

2.  Any  one  who  wishes  to  travel,  may 
collect  a  caravan;  but  they  are  seldom 
gathered  by  private  persons.  Most  com- 
monly they  are  public  concerns,  gathered 
and  regulated  by  authority ;  they  set  off 
on  a  fixed  day,  and  are  under  a  sort 
of  military  discipline.  Four  caravans  go 
every  year  to  Mecca,  with  the  Mohamme- 
dan pilgrims,  to  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet. 
One  from  tlie  European  provinces,  which 
sets  out  from  Damascus;  one  from  the 
Barbary  States  and  Egypt ;  a  third  from 
Arabia ;  and  a  fourth  from  the  parts 
about  Babylon,  with  which  come  the 
Persian  devotees. 

3.  There  are  four  officers  to  such  a 
company.  One  has  supreme  command ; 
a  second  is  the  guide,  who  regulates  the 
march  ;  a  third  rules  when  the  caravan 
stops  to  rest ;  and  the  fourth  regulates  the 
distribution  of  the  provisions.  Almost  all 
the  commerce  of  those  countries  is  con- 
ducted thus.  Merchants  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  so  large  a  body,  many  of  whom 
are  regular  troops,  to  travel  in  safety, 
through  the  Deserts  especially,  where  the 
wandering  Arabs  think  they  have  a  right 
to  plunder  all  whom  they  can  overcome. 
In  the  history  of  commerce  appended,  is 
an  account  of  a  caravan  taken  by  Ricliard 
I.,  of  England,  with  all  its  varied  and  rich 
commodities. 

4.  The  camels,  which  journey  to  Mecca, 
have  rich  furniture  ;  those  which  carry  the 
presents  made  by  the  princes  to  the  tomb  of 
Mohammed,   are  magnificently  accoutred. 


of  caravans?     3.  How  are  they  conducted  ?    4. 

How  are  the  camels  accoutred  on  such  journeys  r 

1  1 


Their  various  stages  in  the  journey  are 
regulated,  as  they  must  arrive  at  Mecca 
by  a  certain  day.  They  continue  only 
twelve  days  there  ;  during  which  short 
period,  a  very  large  and  profitable  trade 
is  carried  on,  in  the  exchange  of  the 
most  precious  productions  of  India,  Per- 
sia, Egypt,  Barbary,  and  Europe. 

5.  As  they  have  not  roads  like  ours,  in 
those  Eastern  countries,  nor  any  inns  to 
accommodate  travellers,  they  must  take 
with  them  all  they  want.  Yet  in  many 
places  are  buildings  erected,  for  their 
use,  called  caravanserais.  These,  how- 
ever, only  aflTord  shelter;  for  neither  food, 
nor  beds,  nor  servants,  can  be  had. 

6.  The  Caffila  is  somewhat  similar  to 
the  caravan.  In  the  East  Indies,  it  al- 
ways belongs  to  some  prince ;  whereas,  a 
caravan  is  an  association  of  various  per- 
sons. But  in  Africa,  the  term  intimates 
generally,  a  company  of  dealers,  who  thus 
convey  their  slaves  for  sale,  with  gold- 
dust,  salt,  and  other  valuable  commodities  ; 
travelling  together  for  greater  security  and 
mutual  assistance.  They  go  from  the 
centre  of  Negroland,  sometimes  eastward 
towards  Egypt,  and  sometimes  westward 
towards  Senegal.  In  those  countries,  it  is 
frequently  called  a  coffle. 

7.  Something  akin  to  this  coffle,  once 
was  common  in  England ;  when  whole 
trains  of  pack-horses  used  to  travel,  load- 
ed with  woollen  goods,  over  the  hills  and 
moors  of  Yorkshire ;  led  by  the  foremost 
horse,  old,  steady,  and  well  accustomed 
to  the  road  ;  and  regulated  by  only  one 
man,  who  brought  up  the  rear. 

8.  Even  now  too,  in  Spain,  strings  of 
mules  are  employed  in  the  same  way  ;  and 
the  arricaos  or  muleteers  form  a  numerous 
and  rather  conspicuous  part  of  the  Span 
ish  population.  Mules  are  preferred  in 
Spain    for   driving,  as    being    more  sure- 


5.  What  are  caravanserais  ?    6,  What  of  the  caf- 
fila r   7.  The  coffle  ?  8.  What  of  mules  in  Spam  ' 


122 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


footed  aiid  hardier  of  living  tiian  horses. 
Besides  whicli,  there  are  caravans  of 
mules,  with  loads  on  their  backs,  con- 
stantly crossing  Si)ain  on  the  various 
roads,  carrying  corn,  rice,  flour,  pulse, 
wine,  and  oil  in  skins,  as  well  as  goods 
from  the  seaports  to  the  interior.  The 
muleteer  is  a  jovial  being ;  he  wanders 
all  over  the  country ;  his  home  is  every 
where :  light-hearted  and  happy,  he  is  also 
honest,  and  his  punctuality  may  in  general 
be  depended  upon.  He  is  very  kind  to 
his  mules,  calls  them  by  their  names,  talks 
to  them,  scolds  them,  and  his  first  care  on 
arriving  at  the  inn  is  to  see  them  comfort- 
ably provided  for,  and  then,  and  not  till 
then,  he  thinks  of  himself 

9.  Mules  are  much  used  for  travelling 
in  South  America.  Travellers  in  the 
United  States  can  have  but  a  faint  idea 
of  the  labor  and  danger  of  crossing  the 
Andes,  that  immense  mountain  chain  by 


^^^^^■' 

W:                                                                                                        . 

^^4B 

fc          ,,            _^^^^V 

^^i^JHIi 

ilwmff^^^^^^^*' 

jfl^^^g/fl 

mifw^W  '-^^^'  '  ^  - 

*  —  ■'■-^^^^^^'i' 

l^tt 

which  the  continent  of  South  America  is 
intersected,  from  its  southern  to  its  most 
northern  extremity,  dividing  Peru  and 
Chile,  on  the  western  coasts  from  Colom- 
bia and  Brazil  on  the  eastern.  Many  of 
the  passes  are  upwards  of  18,000  feet,  or 
nearly  four  miles,  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  In  some  parts,  men,  who  have  made 
it  their  sole  occupation,  carry  the  pas- 
senger up  the  most  steep  and  dangerous 
paths,  in  a  kind  of  chair  fastened  to  their 


9   Travelling  in  South  America?  10— IC.  What 


backs ;  but  In  general,  the  journey  is 
made  by  travellers  mounted  on  the  patient 
and  sure-footed  mule.  The  following  de- 
scription of  a  journey  with  mules  is  from 
the  account  of  a  recent  traveller  in  South 
America. 

10  "As  I  was  looking  up  at  the  region 
of  snow,  and  as  my  mule  was  scrambling 
along  the  steep  of  rock,  the  captain  over- 
took me,  and  asked  me  if  I  chose  to  come 
on,  as  he  wa-;  going  to  look  at  a  very  dan- 
gerous part  of  the  road,  which  we  were 
approaching,  to  see  if  it  were  passable, 
before  the  nniles  came  to  it.  In  half  an 
hour  we  arrived  at  the  spot.  It  is  the 
worst  pass  in  the  whole  road  over  the 
Andes.  The  mountain  above  appears  al- 
most perpendicular,  and  in  one  continued 
slope  down  to  a  rapid  torrent  that  is  rag- 
ing underneath.  The  surface  is  covered 
with  loose  earth  and  stones,  which  have 
been  brought  down  by  the  waters.  The 
path  goes  across  this  slope,  and  is  very 
bad  for  about  seventy  yards,  being  only  a 
few  inches  broad  ;  but  the  point  of  danger 
is  a  spot,  where  the  water,  which  comes 
down  from  the  top  of  the  mountain,  either 
washes  the  path  away,  or  covers  it  over 
with  loose  stones.  In  some  places,  tln^ 
rock  almost  touches  one's  shoulder,  while 
the  precipice  is  immediately  under  the 
opposite  foot,  and  high  overhead  are  a 
number  of  loose  stones,  which  appear  as 
if  the  slightest  touch  would  send  thein 
i  rolling  into  the  torrent  beneath,  which  is 
foaming  and  running  with  great  violence. 

11.  "As  soon  as  we  had  crossed  tlie 
pass,  which  is  only  seventy  yards  long 
the  captain  told  me  it  was  a  very  bad 
place  for  baggage-mules  ;  that  four  hun- 
dred had  been  lost  there ;  and  that  we 
should  probably  lose  one. 

12.  "  The  drove  of  mules  now  came  in 
sight,  one  following  another :  a  few  were 
carrying  no   burdens,  but  the   rest  were 


is  the  traveller's  story  of  travelling  over  the  An- 


MODES  OF  CONVETANCE. 


123 


either  mounted  or  heavily  laden.  As  soon 
as  the  leading  mule  came  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  pass,  he  stopped,  evi- 
dently unwilling  to  proceed,  and  of  course 
ail  the  rest  stopped  also. 

13.  "  He  was  the  finest  mule  we  had, 
and,  on  that  account,  had  twice  as  much 
to  carry  as  any  of  the  others.  With  his 
nose  to  the  ground,  literally  smelling  his 
way,  he  walked  gently  on,  oTten  changing 
the  position  of  his  feet,  if  he  found  the 
ground  would  not  bear,  until  he  came  to 
the  bad  part  of  the  pass,  when  he  stopped ; 
but  the  drivers  threw  stones  at  him,  and 
lie  continued  his  path  in  safety,  and  sev- 
eral others  followed. 

14.  "At  length,  a  young  mule,  carrying 
a  portmanteau,  with  two  large  sacks  of 
provisions,  and  many  other  things,  in  pass- 
ing the  bad  point,  struck  his  load  against 
the  rock,  which  knocked  his  two  hind 
legs  over  the  precipice,  and  the  loose 
stones  immediately  began  to  roll  away 
from  under  them  :  however,  his  fore  legs 
were  still  upon  the  narrow  path  :  he  had 
no  room  to  put  his  head  there,  but  he 
placed  his  nose  on  the  path  to  his  left, 
and  appeared  to  hold  on  by  his  mouth  : 
his  perilous  fate  was  soon  decided  by  a 
loose  mule,  who,  in  walking  along  after 
him,  knocked  his  comrade's  nose  off  the 
path,  destroyed  his  balance,  and  head  over 
heels  the  poor  creature  instantly  com- 
menced a  fall,  which  was  really  quite  ter- 
rific. 

15.  "With  all  his  baggage  firmly  lash- 
ed to  him,  he  rolled  down  t^e  steep  slope, 
until  he  came  to  the  part  v^^hich  was  per- 
pendicular, and  then  he  seemed  to  bound 
off,  and  turning  round  in  the  air,  fell  into 
the  deep  torrent,  on  his  back,  and  upon 
his  baggage,  and  instantly  disappeared. 

16.  "To  any  other  animal  but  a  mule 
this  fall  must  have  been  fatal ;  he  was  car- 
ried down  by  the  stream  in  spite  of  all  his 

dei  '    1".  What  of  the  large  wagons  of  the  Alle- 


efforts,  and,  turning  the  corner  of  a  rock, 
was  given  up  for  lost.  At  length  I  saw 
at  a  distance  a  solitary  mule  walking  to- 
wards us !  We  instantly  perceived  that  he 
was  the  Phaeton  whose  fall  we  had  just 
witnessed,  and  in  a  few  moments  he  came 
up  to  us  to  join  his  comrades.  He  was, 
of  course  dripping  wet,  his  eye  looked 
dull,  and  his  whole  countenance  was  de- 
jected, but  none  of  his  bones  were  broken: 
he  was  very  little  cut,  and  his  sound  ap- 
pearance was  actually  incredible." 

17.  The  large,  lieavy  wagons,  which 
cross  the  Alleghany  mountains,  in  the 
United  States,  are  well  worthy  of  mention. 
The  exchange  of  goods  between  the  east- 
ern and  western  parts  of  Pennsylvania  is 
mostly  effected  by  means  of  these  wagons. 
They  are  drawn  by  five  or  six  horses, 
and  are  built  very  stout  for  travelling  the 
rough  roads  across  the  mountains.  They 
have  coverings  of  cloth,  supported  by  strong 
wooden  hoops,  and  carry  very  heavy  loads. 
The  horses  have  small  bells  attached  to  the 
liames,  as  they  are  called,  and  the  merry 
jingle  of  tjiese,  when  passing  through  the 
woods,  is  very  pleasant.  These  bells  serve 
as  music  to  the  tired  teamster,  but  they 
also  answer  a  more  important  purpose; 
being  heard  at  a  distance,  they  give  in- 
formation in  season,  that  no  accident  may 
happen  by  two  teams  coming  in  contact, 
by  meeting  unexpectedly  in  the  night 
Sixty  or  more  of  these  large  wagons  may 
often  be  seen  in  a  line. 

18.  There  is  a  traffic  carried  on  be- 
tween St.  Louis  in  Missouri  and  Santa 
Fe  in  Mexico,  by  caravans  of  mules  and 
horse  wagons.  They  carry  to  Santa  Je 
manufactured  goods,  tobacco,  spirits,  &.c. 
and  receive  specie,  or  gold  and  silver  ore 
in  return.  Herds  of  wild  buffaloes  are 
sometimes  met  on  this  route.    These  roam 

j  in  thousands  over  the  far  western  prai- 
ries, and   swim  large  rivers  in  nearly  the 

j  ffhanies  ?     18    What  of  the  trade  between  St 
h2 


124 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


same  order,  in   which   they  traverse    the 
plains. 


19.  In  winter  when  tlie  ground  is  cov- 
ered with  snow,  travellini?  in  sleighs  is  a 
rapid  and  favorite  mode  of  conveyance. 
Bells  are  usually  attached  to  some  part  of 
the  harness,  in   order  to  give  warning  to 


the  foot-passenger.  The  sledge  of  the 
Laplander  may  be  mentioned  in  this  place. 
It  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  small  boat, 
and  is  usually  drawn  by  the  reindeer,  who 
glides  with  incredible  swiftness  over  the 
snow  and  ice.  This  animal,  it  is  said,  can 
run  with  ease  two  hundred  miles  a  day. 

20.  The  invention  of  rai7-roac?5  promises 
to  increase  the  facility  of  communication 
between  distant  places  to  a  wonderful  de- 
gree.    Iron  grooves  are  sunk  in  wooden 


frames,  on  the  ground ;  and  the  wagons 
are  furnished  with  iron  wheels,  which  run 
in  these  grooves  with  very  little  friction. 

21.  Gravity,  horse-power  and  steam- 
power  have  been  used  on  rail-roads. 
Where  the  road  is  sufficiently  sloping  in 
one  direction,  the  force  of  gravity  may 
move  the  carriage  in  that  direction.  Lo- 
comotive or  sjeam  engines  are  much  used 
in  England,  and  there  are  several  in  tJiis 
country.  It  has  been  computed  that  one 
of  these  locomotive  engines  will  perform 

'the  work  of  240  horses  travelhng  at  the 
rate  of  ten  miles  per  hour  upon  a  turnpike 
I  road,  the  velocity  of  the  locomotive  being 
I  fifteen  miles  per  hour. 

22.  The  Quincy  rail-road  was  the  first 
I  work  of  the  kind  attempted  in  the  United 
j  States.  It  was  constructed  solely  for  the 
I  transportation  of  granite,  and  commences 

at  the  granite  quarry  in  Quincy,  and  ter- 
minates at  the  Neponset  River,  which 
flows  into  Boston  harbor.  It  is  three 
miles  in  length.  Many  other  rail-roads 
are  in  the  course  of  construction  through 
different  parts  of  Massachusetts.  The 
principal  of  these  are  the  Boston  and 
Lowell  rail-road,  and  the  Boston  and 
Worcester  rail-road. 

23.  The  Mohawk  and  Hudson  rail-road 
in  New  York  was  begun  in  1830,  and  is 
to  extend  from  the  Hudson  at  Albany,  to 
the  Erie  canal  at  Schenectady.  Steam 
cars  have  travelled  upon  it  with  a  load  of 

1  eight  tons,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  per 
hour.  The  Camden  and  Amboy  rail-road 
commences  at  Camden  on  the  Delaware, 
opposite  to  Philadelphia,  and  terminates  at 
Amboy.  The  whole  distance  in  a  direct 
line  is  sixty  miles. 

24.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail-road 
is  intended  to  unite  the  city  of  Baltimore 
with  the  great  Ohio  River.     A  considera- 


Louis  and  Santa  Fe  ?  19.  Travelling  in  sleighs  ij  Quincy  rail-road  ?  Other  rail-roads  in  Massachu- 
&c.  20.  The  invention  of  rail -roads  ?  21.  The  |[  setts?  23.  The  Mohawk  and  Hudson  rail-road  ? 
powers  used  upon  rail-roads  ?    22.  What  of  the  L  Camden  and  Amboy .?    24.  The  Baltimore  and 


MODES    OF    CONVEYANCE. 


125 


ble  part  of  it  is  already  completed,  and  cars 
now  in  operation  upon  it.     Passengers 


are 


are  conveyed  in  these  cars  with  great  ra- 
j)idity  to  different  points  on  the  road.  The 
length  of  this  rail-road  when  completed 
will  be  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles,  and 
there  will  be  but  one  summit  in  the  whole 
line  requiring  stationary  power.  The  esti- 
mated expense  is  twenty  thousand  dollars 
per  mile.  The  bridges  are  all  built  of 
stone.  One,  over  Gwynn's  Falls,  consists 
of  a  single  arch  of  eighty  feet  span,  with 
an  elevation  of  fifty-eight  feet  to  the 
top  of  the  parapet,  and  three  hundred 
feet  in  length.  Another,  across  the  Pe- 
lapsco  has  two  arches  of  fifty-five  feet 
span  each,  and  two  of  twenty  feet  span. 
It  rises  forty-six  feet  high,  and  is  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  long.  The 
deepest  cut  will  be  seventy-nine  feet,  and 
the  highest  embankment  fifty-seven  feet. 
In  one  place  the  road  has  been  carried 
through  a  solid  mass  of  rock  rising  fifty- 
eight  feet  above  its  surface. 

25.  We  have  mentioned  but  a  few 
of  the  principal  rail-roads  in  the  United 
States.  These  means  of  conveyance  are 
fast  multiplying  throughout  our  vast  coun- 
try and  can  hardly  fail  to  produce  the 
most  beneficial  results.  In  England  rail- 
roads have  increased  amazingly  within  the 
last  twelve  years ;  and  throughout  Europe 


Ohio  ?    25.  The  increase  of  this  means  of  trans- 
porration  ? 


an  awakened  attention  seems  to  have  been 
turned  to  the  subject. 


CHAP.  XXXIV. 
MODES  OF  CONVEYANCE.— Continued. 

1.  The  most  wonderful,  and  at  the 
same  time  most  convenient  method  of 
transporting  goods  from  one  country  to 
another,  is  by  means  of  a  ship.  That  a 
body  so  large  and  so  heavily  laden,  should 
float  on  the  water;  that  it  should  be  so 
well-balanced  as  not  to  tilt  over ;  that  ma- 
riners should  be  able  to  guide  its  move- 
ments to  any  quarter  of  the  globe,  and  in 
any  manner  they  please,  are  all  circum- 
stances of  great  importance,  and  exhibit 
in  a  striking  light  the  power  and  ingenuity 
of  man.  « 

2.  A  single  ship  is  a  beautiful  object ; 
when  in  full  sail  she  glides  majestically 
along,  cutting  the  waves  with  her  sharp 
prow,  and  dashing  them  behind  in  her 
foaming  wake.  The  eye  is  never  weary  in 
watching  her  steady  and  graceful  motions. 


%► 


3.  A  fleet  of  ships  coming  into  port, 
to  the  amount  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
sail  perhaps  of  merchantmen,  is  certainly 
a  grand  sight ;  all  under  regulated  move- 
ments, and  bearing  treasures  to  the  amount 
of  some  millions  of  money.  The  commu- 
nication is  mutually  beneficial ;  the  inter- 


1.  2.  What  is  said  of  the  ship?    3.  A  fleet  of 
ships  ?  4.  The  EngUsh  East  India  ships  ?  5.  The 


126 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


change  of  commodities  is  advantageous; 
the  comforts  of  both  regions  are  more 
than  doubled  by  the  traffic. 

4.  The  English  East  India  ships  are 
often  of.  one  thousand  two  hundred  tons 
burden.  Their  value,  w^hen  richly  laden, 
is  immense.  Galleons,  are  very  large 
ships,  employed  by  the  Spaniards,  to  con- 
vey the  treasures  of  the  East  Indies  across 
the  great  Pacific,  to  Acupulco;  or,  in 
the  Atlantic,  to  bring  the  produce  of  the 
American  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  to 
Europe,  to  the  mother  country.  Those 
w^hich  come  to  Europe,  are  collectively 
called  the  Flota. 

5.  Ships  from  their  size  are,  in  many 
cases,  unable  to  approach  near  the  shore. 
There  is  a  need  of  smaller  vessels,  to  con- 
vey their  merchandise  or  their  passengers 
to  and  from  the  land :  such  as  boats, 
which  are  moved  with  oars ;  or  hoys, 
smacks,  cutters,  &c.  which  have  masts  and 
sails. 

6.  The  Chinese  vessels  are  called  junks  ; 


they  are  but  small,  compared  with  ours  ; 
but  they  may  be  seen  in  great  numbers  on 
their  canals. 

7.  By  canoe  is  meant  a  sort  of  boat,  not 
built  up  with  ribs  and  planks,  but  hollow- 
ed out  of  one  single  trunk  of  a  tree,  and 
shaped  for  the  purpose :  so  they  are  often 
constructed  in  the  tropical  part  of  the  At- 
lantic and  by  the  North  American  Indians. 


In  the  more  northern  and  southern  parts, 
they  are  formed  with  pieces  of  bark  sew- 
ed together.  The  Grecnlander's  canoe  is 
made  with  very  slender  laths  joined  with 
wlialebone,  and  covered  with  seal  skins. 

8.  The  proas,  used  among  the  Ladrone 
Isles,  have  always  excited  surprise ;  as 
they  will  sail  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles 
an  hour,  owing  to  their  peculiar  con- 
struction. One  side  of  these  canoes,  that 
which  is  on  the  lee  side,  or  away  from 
the  wind,  is  entirely  straight,  the  other  is 
bowed  out,  in  the  usual  shape.  The  ends 
are  by  this  means  made  very  sharp,  to  cut 
the  water,  especially  as  they  are  made 
narrower  hereby.  Both  ends  are  equally 
sharp ;  so  that  the  navigators  have  no 
need  to  turn,  but  can  come  back  again 
with  ease.  Canoes  thus  formed  woifld 
be  very  liable  to  turn  over ;  indeed,  they 
could  hardly  live  in  a  rough  sea.  To  pre- 
vent this,  the  Ladrones  have  an  out-rigger, 
consisting  of  a  frame  projecting  on  the 
windward  side,  with  a  log  (jf  wood,  shaped 
like  a  boat,  at  its  end.  The  weight  of  this 
frame  keeps  the  balance,  for  the  wind  can 
hardly  tilt  the  canoe  so  as  to  raise  the 
frame  out  of  the  water ;  while  the  hollow- 
ness  of  the  little  boat  prevents  its  sinking 
on  that  side.  The  planks  of  this  proa  are 
sewed  together  with  strips  of  bark:  no 
iron  being  used  in  it.  The  sails  consist 
of  mats;  and  the  masts,  yards,  and  out- 
rigger, are  made  of  the  bamboo,  which  is 
extremely  light. 

9.  Inland  commerce  is  carried  on  by 
water  in  a  great  measure,  in  many  coun- 
tries. Our  own  country  is  now  well  sup- 
plied with  canals ;  Holland  has  long  been 
famous  for  such  conveniences ;  and  China 
is  intersected  to  a  very  great  degree  by 
them.  It  is  said,  that  as  many  inhabit- 
ants of  that  country  live  and  die  on  the 
water,  as  on  land. 

10.  Canal  boats  are  generally  of  peculiar 


names  of  eome  smaller  vessels  ?   6.  The  Chinese 


junks  ?  7.  The  canoe?  8.  The  proas?  9.  Canals' 


MODES    OF    CONVEYANCE. 


127 


dimensions,  suited  to  their  particular  pur- 
pose, and  to  nothing  else.    They  are  some- 


times seventy  feet  long,  and  only  six  feet 
wide ;  that  they  may  be  able  to  pass  each 
other  without  requiring  the  canal  to  be  of 
an  inconvenient  width.  They  will  con- 
tain a  very  large  quantity  of  goods,  and 
yet  may  be  drawn  by  a  single  horse  with 
tolerable  ease.  There  is  a  towing-path 
on  the  side  of  the  canal,  for  the  horses. 

11.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  disco- 
veries of  modern  times  is  the  art  of  pro- 
pelling vessels  by  steam.  The  principle  is, 
by  a  steam  engine  of  considerable  power, 
to  work  a  large  wheel,  or  rather  two 
wheels,  one  on  each  side,  which,  by  pad- 
dles, push  against  the  water,  and  thus 
shove  the  vessel  forward.  For  the  first 
successful  application  of  this  discovery, 
the  world  is  indebted  to  Robert  Fulton, 
an  American.  His  account  of  the  con- 
struction of  his  first  steamboat  is  well  wor- 
thy the  perusal  of  my  young  readers  :  it 
is  taken  from  Judge  Story's  Discourse  be- 
fore the  Boston  Mechanics'  Institution. 

12.  "When,"  said  Fulton,  "  I  was  build- 
ing my  first  steamboat  at  New  York,  the 
project  was  viewed  by  the  public  either 
with  indifference,  or  with  contempt  as 
a  visionary  scheme.  My  friends  indeed 
were  civil,  but  they  were  shy.  They  list- 
ened with  patience  to  my  explanations,  but 
with  a  settled  cast  of  incredulity  on  their 


10.  Canal-boats  ?  11.  The  steamboat?  To  whom 


countenances.     I  felt  the  full  force  of  tha 

lamentation  of  the  poet, 

"  Truths  would  you  teach  to  save  a  sinking  land, 
All  shun,  none  aid  you,  and  few  understand.-' 

As  I  had  occasion  to  pass  daily  to  and 
from  the  building  yard,  while  my  boat  was 
in  progress,  I  have  often  loitered  unknown 
near  the  idle  groups  of  strangers,  gather- 
ing in  little  circles,  and  heard  various  in- 
quiries as  to  the  object  of  this  new  vehi- 
cle. The  language  was  uniformly  that 
of  scorn,  or  sneer,  or  ridicule.  The  loud 
laugh  often  rose  at  my  expense ;  the  dry 
jest ;  the  wise  calculation  of  losses  and 
expenditures  ;  the  dull  but  endless  repeti- 
tion of  the  Fulton  Folly. 

13.  "Never  did  a  single  encouraging 
remark,  a  bright  hope,  or  a  warm  wish, 
cross  my  path.  Silence  itself  was  but  po- 
liteness, veiling  its  doubts,  or  hiding  its 
reproaches.  At  length  the  day  'arrived 
when  the  experiment  was  to  be  put  in 
operation.  To  me  it  was  a  most  tryina^ 
and  interesting  occasion.  I  invited  many 
friends  to  go  on  board  to  witness  the  first 
successful  trip.  Many  of  them  did  me  the 
favor  to  attend,  as  a  matter  of  personal 
respect ;  but  it  was  manifest  that  they  did 
it  with  reluctance,  fearing  to  be  the  part- 
ners of  my  mortification,  and  not  of  my 
triumph.  I  was  well  aware,  that  in  my 
case  there  were  many  reasons  to  doubt 
of  my  own  success.  The  machinery  was 
new  and  ill  made  ;  many  parts  of  it  were 
constructed  by  mechanics  unaccustomed 
to  such  work ;  and  unexpected  diflficultieH 
might  reasonably  be  presumed  to  present 
themselves  from  other  causes. 

14.  "The  moment  arrived,  in  which  the 
word  was  to  be  given  for  the  vessel  to 
move.  My  friends  were  in  groups  on  the 
deck.  There  was  anxiety  mixed  with  fear 
among  them.  They  were  silent,  and  .ead, 
and  weary.  I  read  in  their  looks  nothing 
but  disaster,  and  almost  repented  of  my 


are  we  indebted  for  this  invention .'  12 — 15.  What 


i28 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


efforts  The  signal  was  given,  and  the 
boat  moved  on  a  short  distance,  and  then 
stopped  and  became  immovable.  To  the 
silence  of  the  preceding  moment  nov<r  suc- 
ceeded murmurs  of  discontent  and  agita- 
tions, and  whispers  and  shrugs.  I  could 
hear  distinctly  repeated,  *  I  told  you  it 
would  be  so — it  is  a  foolish  scheme — I 
wish  we  \*rere  well  out  of  it.'  I  elevated 
myself  upon  a  platform,  and  addressed 
the  assembly.  I  stated,  that  I  knew  not 
what  was  tbe  matter ;  but  if  they  would 
be  quiet,  and  indulge  me  for  a  half  hour,  I 
would  either  go  on,  or  abandon  the  voy- 
age for  that  time. 

15.  "This  short  respite  was  conceded 
without  objection.  I  went  below,  exam- 
ined the  machinery,  and  discovered  that 
the  cause  was  a  slight  mal-adjustment  of 
some  of  the  work.  In  a  short  period  it 
was  obviated.  The  boat  was  again  put  in 
motion.  She  continued  to  move  on.  All 
were  still  incredulous.  None  seemed  wil- 
ling to  trust  the  evidence  of  their  own 
senses.  We  left  the  fair  city  of  New 
York;  we  passed  through  the  romantic 
and  ever-varying  scenery  of  the  highlands  ; 
we  descried  the  clustering  houses  of  Al- 
bany ;  we  reached  its  shores ;  and  then, 
even  then,  when  all  seemed  achieved,  I 
was  the  victim  of  disappointment.  Imag- 
ination superseded  the  influence  of  fact. 
It  was  then  doubted,  if  it  could  be  done 
again ;  or  if  done,  it  was  doubted  if  it 
could  be  made  of  any  great  value." 

16.  Since  the  death  of  Fulton,  steam- 
boats have  multiplied  to  an  incredible  ex- 
tent in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  no- 
where to  such  an  extent  as  on  the  broad 
Mississippi  and  other  mighty  rivers  of  the 
west.  Some  of  the  steamboats  of  the 
Mississippi  are  fitted  up  in  an  uncommon 
Btjile  of  elegance,  and  may  almost  merit  the 
designation  of  "  floating  palaces."     Steam- 


is  Fulton's  account  of  the  trial  of  his  first  steam- 
boat ?    15.  What  of  the  increase  of  steam-boats  ? 


boats  pass  between  Providence  and  New 
York,  through  Long  Island  Sound,  during 
all  the  open  season.  Nearly  the  whole  of 
the  summer  travelling  from  Boston  to  the 
south  passes  by  this  route. 


17.  On  the  canals,  and  river  navigation 
of  England,  steamboats  are  very  frequent ; 
yet,  at  present,  they  are  rather  used  for 
conveying  passengers  than  goods.  They 
venture  out  to  sea,  cross  the  Atlantic, 
and  even  go  to  the  East  Indies.    They  use 


masts  and  sails  when  the  wind  suits  ;  but 
as  they  can  go  by  steam  only,  without 
sails,  if  the  wind  be  against  them,  which 
totally  prevents  a  ship  from  proceeding,  it 
is  no  great  impediment  to  the  steam  ves- 
sel :  it  makes  its  way  in  spite  of  contrary 
winds  and  adverse  tides. 

18.  We  have  one  sort  of  water  convey 
ance  not  yet  noted,  although  it  is  very  an- 


Steamboats  on  the  Mississippi  ?  17.  In  England  ? 
18.  Whatofthetimber-float?  19.  Timber  cut  in 


MODES    OF    CONVEYANCE. 


129 


cient,  and  in  some  places,  even  now,  of 
great  use  ;  that  is,  the  timber  Jloat.  The 
timber  from  Lebanon,  intended  for  Solo- 
mon's temple,  was  floated  in  the  sea  to 
Joppa,  from  whence  it  was  taken  by  land 
carriage  to  Jerusalem. 

19.  Much  of  the  timber  cut  in  Norway 
is  floated  down  the  rivers,  to  the  cities, 
from  whence  it  is  to  be  exported  to  other 
countries.  A  considerable  proportion  of 
this  is  split,  shivered  to  pieces,  or  otherwise 
.damaged,  in  its  adventurous  voyage.  Yet 
iipon  the  whole,  this  is  the  cheapest  mode 
of  transit ;  and  in  some  cases,  owing  to  the 
ruggedness  of  the  country,  the  only  method 
by  which  such  bulky  materials  could  be 
conveyed  to  the  place  of  sale. 

20.  But  the  grand  floatage  of  the  pre- 
sent day  in  Europe  takes  place  on  the 
Rhine.  On  its  broad  stream,  floats  of 
timber  trees,  to  the  value  of  thirty  thou- 
sand pounds,  in  one  mass,  proceed  every 
year,  from  the  forests  near  its  source,  to 
the  cities  of  the  Netherlands,  where  th6y 
are  broken  up  for  sale.  The  mass  is 
often  a  thousand  feet  long,  and  nearly  a 
hundred  in  width,  and  of  a  thickness  suf- 
ficient to  raise  the  upper  part  seven  feet 
out  of  the  water.     These  trees  are  all  firm- 

y  pinned  and  bound  together.     It  requires 


several  hundred  men  to  navigate  such 
an  unwieldy  concern  ;  and  these  4ive  on 
the  float,  in  two  rows   of  huts  formed  on 


Norway  ?    20.  The  timber-floats  of  the  Rhine  ? 
21 .  What  is  a  raft .-'  22.  What  of  timber  in  Maine  ' 
9 


it,  with  a  regular  street  between  them. 
Several  smaller  floats  go  in  front,  by 
means  of  which  the  great  body  is  towed 
along,  clear  from  obstructions. 

21.  .^  raft  is  a  small  flooring  of  limber, 
such  as  comes  to  hand,  in  case  of  ship- 
wreck ;  which,  being  fastened  together 
will  float  passengers  and  goods,  though 
with  much  inconvenience,  yet  safely,  to 
the  shore.  A  raft,  too,  is  the  form  in 
which  timbers  are,  in  the  Baltic,  conveyed 
to  the  shipping,  which  wait  to  transport 
them  to  foreign  countries. 

22.  The  northern  parts  of  Maine  fur- 
nish vast  quantities  of  timber.  The  trees 
are  felled  in  the  depth  of  winter  by  parties 
which  go  into  tfiie  woods  in  autumn  for 
that  purpose,  and  cut  down  the  trees  after 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snowsufficieErf;- 
ly  to  enable  them  to  drag  the  timber  by 
oxen  to  the  rivers  where  they  are  rolled 
upon  the  ice.  When  the  ice  melts  in  the 
spring,  the  logs  are  floated  down  to  the 
sea.     Where  the  rivers  are  wide  and  un 


interrupted  by  falls,  the  logs  are  fastened 
together  in  rafts. 

23.  Immense  timber  rafts  may  often  be 
seen  upon  Lake  Champlain,  floating  down 
on  their  way  to  Albany  and  the  towns  on 
the  Hudson.  These  rafts  contain  houses 
for  lodging  the  crews ;  and  when  the 
wind  is  fair,  sails  are  fixed  up  to  assist 
their  course. 


When  are  the  trees  felled 
Lake  Champlain? 


23.  Timber-rafls  on 


130 


BpOK 


OF    COMMERCE. 


CHAP.  XXXV. 

FACILITIES  FOH  PROSECUTING  COMMERCE. 

1.  Of  all  the  discoveries  made  by  man, 
thai  of  communicating  thoughts,  and  es- 
pecially of  rendering  them  permanent,  by 
means  of  letters,  is  certainly  the  most 
wonderful  and  important.  By  this  means 
have  all  the  great  inventions  and  sublime 
productions  of  human  genius  been  com- 
municated from  one  nation  to  another,  and 
with  successive  improvements  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  sci- 
entific and  literary  acquirements  of  the 
ancients  have  thus  become  the  property 
of  the  moderns.  They  still  live  in  their 
literary  labors ;  their  thoughts  exist  in 
their  writings,  and  after  the  lapse  of  above 
two  thousand  years,  we  enjoy  their  con- 
versation, and  are  enlightened  by  their  in- 
structions. The  knowledge  of  the  pre- 
ceding is,  thus,  the  foundation  of  that  of 
the  present  century,  which,  still  improved 
and  extended,  will  illuminate  posterity. 

2.  The  opinions  of  authors  concerning 
the  origin  of  letters  are  various.  The 
Indians,  the  Chinese,  the  Chaldeans,  the 
Arabians,  the  Egyptians,  the  Plieniciuns, 
have  respectively  their  pretensions  to  that 
honor.  Memnon,  the  Egyptian,  is  by 
some  supposed  to  have  invented  letters 
in  the  year  1822  before  Christ.  Letters 
were  first  brought  into  Greece  by  Cad- 
mus, the  Phenician,  who  was  contempo- 
rary with  David.  His  alphabet  consisted 
of  sixteen  letters,  and  the  rest  were  added 
afterwards,  as  signs  for  proper  sounds 
were  needed. 

3.  To  write,  or,  in  other  words,  to  ex- 
jn-ess  the  thoughts  to  the  eye,  was  early 
attempted  in  Egypt,  by  means  of  hiero- 
glyphics: these  were  figures  of  animals, 
]  tarts  of  the  human  body,  and  even  me- 
ehanical  instruments  ;  as  the  former  were 
made  choice  of  on  account   of  the  pecu- 

1.  What  of  the  invention  of  letters?  2.  To 
whom  is  the  discovery  attributed  ?    3.  What  of 


liar  properties  or  qualities  of  the  animals^ 
so  they  are  said  to  have  represented  simi- 
lar qualities  in  the  gods,  heroes,  or  others 
to  whom  they  were  applied. 

4.  But  these  were  not  confined  to  Egypt : 
figures,  composed  of  feathers,  were  em- 
ployed to  express  ideas,  in  Peru;  and 
Montezuma  received  intelligence  of  the 
invasion  of  his  kingdom  by  the  Spaniards, 
in  this  way.  In  Peru,  arithmetic  was 
composed  only  of  diflTerent  colored  knots. 

5.  The  next  step  in  the  progress  of 
writing,  appears  to  be  the  expression  of  a 
word  by  a  single  mark  or  letter,  which  is 
the  Chinese  method  of  writing.  They 
have  upwards  of  sixty  thousand  of  these 
marks,  which  they  employ  in  aflairs  of 
science.  Instead  of  using  marks  to  re- 
present words,  which  are  infinite,  we  em- 
ploy letters  to  represent  articulate  sounds, 
which  compose  words.  Their  inferior 
and  inconvenient  mode  of  writing  readily 
accounts  for  the  state  of  literature  among 
the  Chinese,  and  their  relative  superiority 
in  respect  to  the  arts,  being  imitative,  may 
be  acquired  by  practice  or  oral  instruc- 
tion. 

6.  The  art  of  writing  seems  to  have 
been  known  in  Greece  when  Homer  com- 
posed the  Iliad,  and  Odyssey  ;  and  ciphers, 
invented  in  Hindoostan,  were  brought  into 
France  from  Arabia  about  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century. 

7.  The  ancient  order  of  writing  was 
from  right  to  left,  and  this  method  pre- 
vailed even  among  the  Greeks.  They 
used,  afterwards,  to  write  alternately  from 

11  right  to  left,  and  from  left  to  right;  this 
continued  to  the  time  of  Solon,  the  fa- 
mous Athenian  legislator.  The  motion 
from  the  left  to  the  right  being  found 
more  natural  and  convenient,  this  method 
was  adopted  by  all  the  European  nations. 

8.  Writing  was  first  exhibited  on  pillars 
and   tables  of  stone;    afterwards  on  lead, 


t  hieroglyphics?    Writing  in   Peru  and  Mexico? 
i  5.  Chinese  writing?  6.  The  Iliad  ?  7.  What  was 


FACILITIES    FOR    PROSECUTING    COMMERCE. 


131 


and  on  plates  of  the  softer  metals.  When 
t  became  more  extensively  practised,  in 
some  countries,  the  leaves  of  plants  and 
the  bark  of  trees  were  used ;  in  others, 
tablets  of  w^ood  covered  with  a  thin  coat 
of  soft  wax,  on  which  the  impression  was 
made  with  a  stylus,  or  pen  of  iron.  After 
this,  parchment  made  of  the  hides  of  ani- 
mals was  used. 

THE  MAIL  SYSTEM,  «fec. 

9.  The  establishment  of  posts,  by  which 
letters  and  packets  may  be  regularly  con- 
veyed from  one  place  to  another,  has  prov- 
ed one  of  the  most  effective  instruments 
of  civilisation.  "We  find  the  first  posts 
in  the  Persian  empire.  Darius  I,  son  of 
Hystaspes,  caused  couriers,  with  saddled 
horses,  to  stand  ready  at  different  stations 
throughout  the  empire,  situated  one  day's 
journey  from  each  other,  in  order  to  re- 
ceive reports  from  the  provinces  without 
delay. 

10.  "The  name  of  posts  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  Latin  posiliis^  which 
)neans  placed,  because  horses  were  put  at 
certain  distances,  to  transport  letters  or 
travellers.  In  the  ninth  century,  there 
'xisted  in  Germany,  France  and  Italy, 
messengers  who  travelled  on  liorseback, 
destined,  however  only  for  the  service  of 
government ;  and  this  establishment,  be- 
sides, was  of  little  duration. 

11.  "Carrier  pigeons  are  used  in  the 
east,  and  became  known  in  Europe 
through  the  Crusaders,  but  seem  never  to 
have  been  introduced  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  world  to  any  extent.  The  pigeons 
chosen  for  this  service  are  called,  in  Ara- 
bic, hamahn.  They  build  their  nests  in 
the  neighborhood  of  human  habitations. 
The  first  pigeon  used  as  a  messenger, 
some  consider  to  be  that  which  Noah  sent 
from  the   ark,  and  which   returned   with 

the  ancient  order  of  writing  ?  8.  How  was  writ- 
ing first  exhibited  ?  9.  What  is  said  of  the  esta- 
Bl^hment  of  posts  ?  10.  Whence  is  the  name  de- 


the  leaf  of  the  olive.  An  actual  post 
system,  in  which  pigeons  were  the  mes- 
sengers, was  established  by  the  sultan 
Noureddin  Mahmood,  who  died  in  1174. 
It  was  improved  and  extended  by  the  ca- 
liph of  Bagdad,  who  died  in  1225.  The 
price  of  a  well-trained  pair  of  such  pigeons 
was,  at  that  time,  one  thousand  Arabian 
ducats.  This  flying  post  lasted  till  1258, 
when  Bagdad  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mongols,  and  was  destroyed  by  them.  At 
present,  only  a  few  wealthy  individuals  in 
the  east  keep  these  pigeons.  It  requires 
much  time  and  patience  to  train  them. 

12.  "As  soon  as  the  young  are  fledged, 
they  are  made  as  tame  as  possible,  and  ac- 
customed to  each  other's  society.  They 
are  then  sent  in  an  uncovered  cage  to  the 
place  whither  they  are  usually  to  carry 
messages.  If  one  of  them  is  carried 
away,  after  having  been  well  treated  for 
some  time,  it  will  certainly  return  to  its 
mate.  A  small  letter  is  written  on  the 
finest  silk-paper,  sometimes  on  a  partic- 
ular kind  called  bird-paper.  This  is  plac- 
ed lengthwise  under  one  wing,  and  fasten- 
ed with  a  pin  to  a  feather.  A  pigeon  of 
this  kind  can  go  a  distance  of  more  than 
2700  miles  in  a  day.  It  is  well  known, 
that  some  merchants  in  Paris  and  Am- 
sterdam employ  carrier  pigeons,  in  order 
that  the  prices  of  stocks  &.c.  in  Paris,  may 
be  known  as  soon  as  possible  in  Amster- 
dam. 

13.  "When  commerce  began  to  flourish, 
the  larger  commercial  cities,  particularly 
of  Germany,  began  to  establish  mounted 
messengers  and  stage-coaches.  Travelling 
merchants  and  butchers,  who  rode  about 
the  country  to  buy  cattle,  used  to  take 
charge  of  letters. 

14.  "In  the  year  1654,  a  regular  poet 
office    was    estabhshed    in    England,    by 


rived?  11. 12.  What  of  carrier-pigeons?  13.  How 
were  letters  conveyed  of  old  in  Germany  ?  14. 
When  was  a  regular  post-office  established  is 


132 


BOOK    OF    COMBtERCE. 


Cromwell,  and  since  that  time  the  system 
has  been  JmprovedHfejy  various  acts  of  par- 
liament. About  the  year  1784,  a  great 
improvement  was  made  in  the  mode  of 
conveying  the  mails.  Instead  of  send- 
ing the  mails  by  a  boy  on  horseback,  or 
in  carts,  it  was  proposed  that  govern- 
ment should  contract  with  the  masters 
of  coaches  to  carry  the  mail,  along  with  a 
guard,  for  its  protection.  The  plan  was 
finally  established,  and  met  with  complete 
success.  The  regularity  with  which  the 
post  now  comes  and  goes,  and  the  letters 
are  received  and  distributed  in  England, 
is  remarkable.  Nowhere  is  the  inviolabil- 
ity of  letters  more  respected  than  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States. 

15.  "In  the  English  colonies  in  North 
America,  a  post-office  was  projected  as 
early  as  1692.  The  first  office  in  the  co- 
lonies was  established  in  1710,  by  an  act 
of  parliament,  '  for  establishing  a  general 
post-office  for  all  her  majesty's  dominions.' 
The  postmaster  general  was  to  be  *at 
liberty  to  keep  one  chief  letter-office  in 
New  York,  and  other  chief  offices  at 
some  convenient  place  or  places  in  each 
of  her  majesty's  provinces  or  colonies  in 
America.' 

16.  "After  the  breaking  out  of  the  re- 
volution, this  department  came  of  course 
under  the  control  of  the  congress  of  the 
confederacy.  The  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  adopted  in  1789,  gave  the 
exclusive  power  of  establishing  post-offices 
and  post-roads  to  congress,  thus  preventing 
the  difficulties  which  would  have  resulted 
from  leaving  this  department  to  the  several 
states. 

17.  "  There  is  at  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  a  general  post- 
office,  under  the  direction  of  the  post-mas- 
ter general,  who  is  appointed  by  the  pre- 


England  ?  What  improvement  was  made  in  the 
system  in  1784  ?  15.  When  was  a  post-office  pro- 
'ected  in  the  North  American  colonies  r    When 


sident,  and  appoints  two  assistants,  and 
such  clerks  as  may  be  njecessary  for  the 
performance  of  the  business  of  his  office. 
He  establishes  post-offices,  and  appoints 
post-masters  at  all  such  places  as  appear 
to  him  expedient  on  post-roads  establish- 
ed by  law.  He  instructs  the  post-masters, 
provides  for  the  carriage  of  the  mail,  and 
directs  the  routes.  "  No  stage,  or  other 
vehicle  which  regularly  performs  trips  on 
a  post-road,  or  a  road  parallel  to  it,  shall 
convey  letters,  nor  any  packet-boat  or 
other  vessel  which  regularly  plies  on  a 
water  declared  to  be  a  post-road,  except  it 
relates  to  some  part  of  the  cargo,  under 
the  penalty  of  fifty  dollars." 

18.  Robbery  of  the  mail  is  punishable 
with  imprisonment  from  five  to  ten  years, 
and  a  second  offence  with  death.  Dead 
letters,  or  such  as  have  remained  in  the 
post-office  for  a  long  time,  without  being 
called  for,  must  be  sent  to  the  post-master 
general,  at  Washington,  who  opens  them, 
and  if  they  contain  any  thing  valuable  en- 
deavors to  return  them  to  the  owners. 

19.  The  privilege  of  franking  is  an  im- 
munity from  postage,  which  is  enjoyed 
by  certain  officers  of  government  and  by 
members  of  congress.  A  letter  is  said  to 
be  franked  when  the  name  of  the  indi- 
vidual possessed  of  such  privilege  writes 
his  name  upon  the  envelope. 

20.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  the 
mails  are  usually  transported  in  coaches 
on  the  land  route.  Difficulties  are  often 
encountered  by  stage-drivers  in  the  more 
unfrequented  parts  of  the  country  on  ac- 
count of  the  badness  of  the  roads  or  the 
swelling  of  rivers.  Sometimes  a  heavy 
fall  of  snow  obstructs  the  way,  and  some- 
times a  bridge  has  been  broken  by  the  ice 
and  carried  away.  When  these  obstacles 
are  finally  overcome,    the    mail-bags    are 


established  ?  16.  After  the  breaking  out  of  the 
revolution — ?  17.  What  of  the  general  post-of- 
fice?   18.   The  punishment  for  robbery  of  the 


FACILITIES    FOR    PROSECUTING    COMMERCE. 


139 


safely  delivered  at  the  post-office  and  the 
letters  and  newspapers  distributed. 


21.  The  mode  in  which  letters  are  car- 
ried in  some  parts  of  South  America  is 
curious.  The  postman  who  is  the  medi- 
um of  communication  between  the  coasts 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  provinces 
which  are  situated  on  the  east  of  the 
Andes,  swims  for  two  days  down  the 
river  Chamaya,  and  through  a  part  of  the 
Amazon,  carrying  his  bag  of  letters  wrap- 
ped about  his  head,  like  a  turban.  There 
is  scarcely  an  instance  of  the  letters  hav- 
ing been  lost  or  even  wetted. 

22.  "  Great  numbers  of  letters  pass  be- 
tween America  and  Europe  in  the  lines 
of  packets,  particularly  those  which  run 
between  New  York  and  Liverpool  and 
Havre,  and  are  supported  by  the  enterjjrise 
of  private  individuals  in  the  United  States. 
The  number  of  letters  delivered  by  these 
packets  into  the  New  York  post-office, 
sometimes  amounts,  (when  several  arrive 
together  in  consequence  of  a  continuance 
of  contrary  winds  on  the  coast,)  to  many 
thousands  in  one  day." 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

23.  Book-keeping  is  the  art  of  teaching 
how  to  dispose  the  accounts  of  business, 
so  that  the  true  state  of  every  part  and 
of  the  whole,  may  be  easily  and  distinctly 


mail?  19.  The  privilege  of  franking ?  20.  The 
difficulties  of  transporting  the  mail.?  21.  What 
curious  mode  of  carryint^  letters  is  mentioned  .-* 
JS.  What  of  the  transportation  of  letters  between 
12 


known.  Merchants'  books  are  kept  either 
by  single  or  by  double  entry  ;  the  former 
method  is  used  by  retailers  of  merchan- 
dise, and  the  latter  by  merchants,  wholesale 
dealers,  &c. 

24.  The  most  considerable  books,  ac- 
cording to  the  Italian  method  of  double 
entry,  are  the  waste-book,  the  journal  and 
the  ledger;  but  besides  these  three,  which 
are  absolutely  necessary,  there  are  several 
others,  called  auxiliary  books,  which  are 
used  in  proportion  to  the  business  a  man 
transacts.  These  books  are  the  cash-book, 
the  bill-book,  the  invoice-book,  the  ac- 
count-current book,  the  commission,  or 
order,  or  advice-book,  the  letter-book,  &c. 
all  of  which  are  more  or  less  in  use. 

25.  The  Waste-Book  contains  a  distinct 
record  of  all  transactions  and  dealings,  in 
the  way  of  trade,  related  in  a  plain,  sim- 
ple style,  and  in  order  of  time,  as  they 
succeed  one  another.  It  is  ruled  with 
two  columns  on  the  right  hand,  for  dol- 
lars and  cents.  The  several  transactions 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  line, 
in  the  middle  of  which,  or  on  the  left 
margin,  the  date  is  placed.  The  waste 
book  should  contain  a  record  of  all  the 
merchant's  pecuniary  affairs ;  and  every 
occurrence  that  affects  his  stock,  so  as 
to  impair  or  increase  it,  should  be  noted 
down.  In  it  should  be  written  under  the 
date  of  each  day,  every  transaction,  whe- 
ther of  buying  or  seUing,  giving  or  re- 
ceiving ;  noting  well  the  persons,  quanti- 
ties, and  prices. 

26.  The  Journal  is  the  book  in  which 
the  transactions  recorded  in  the  waste- 
book  are  prepared  to  be  carried  to  the 
ledger.  It  is  in  fact  only  the  waste-book 
copied  out,  but  the  matters  are  stated  dif 
ferently.  In  the  Waste-book,  the  severa. 
transactions   are    simply   noted    down,    as 


Europe  and  America.'  23.  What  is  said  of  book- 
keeping.? 24.  What  books  are  used  according  to 
the  Italian  method  of  double  entry  .?  25.  What 
is  the  waste-book.?    26.  The  journal?    27.  The 


c34 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


you  might  enter  them  yourselves ;  but  in 
the  Journal,  they  are  told  in  the  mer- 
chants' peculiar  linguage;  such  as  you 
would  hardly  understand,  till  you  should 
come  to  be  accustomed  to  it.  But  it  is  so 
stated  in  Debtor  and  Creditor  as  to  be  the 
more  readily  transferred  to  the  several  dis- 
tinct accounts  in  the  Ledger ;  and  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  render  the  detection  of 
errors  more  easy. 

27.  The  Ledger  is  the  principal  book, 
wherein  all  the  several  articles  of  each 
particular  account  that  lie  scattered  in 
other  books,  according  to  their  dates,  are 
collected  and  placed  together  in  spaces 
allotted  for  them,  in  such  a  maimer  that 
the  opposite  parts  of  every  account  are 
directly  set  fronting  one  another,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  same  page  or  folio. 

28.  The  ledger's  folios  are  divided  into 
spaces  tor  containing  the  accounts,  on  the 
head  of  which  are  written  the  titles  of  the 
accounts,  marked  Dr.  on  the  left  hand 
page,  and  Cr.  on  the  right ;  below  which 
stand  the  articles,  with  the  word  To  pre- 
fixed on  the  Dr.  side,  and  the  word  By  on 
the  Cr.  side  ;  and  upon  the  margin  are  re- 
corded the  dates  of  the  articles,  in  two 
small  columns  allotted  for  that  purpose. 
The  person  who  owes  me  any  thing  is 
called  my  debtor :  the  person  whom  I  owe 
is  called  my  creditor:  the  balance  is  the 
overplus  or  difference — so  much  as  one 
side  of  the  account  exceeds  the  other. 

29.  I  will  now  endeavor  to  explain  to 
you  some  of  those  mercantile  terms  which 
you  must  often  hear,  bui  may  not  always 
understand.  A  bill  of  exchange  is  a  secu- 
rity, originally  invented  among  merchants 
in  different  countries  for  the  more  easy 
remittance  of  money  from  the  one  to  the 
other.  It  is  an  open  letter  of  request, 
from  one  man  to  another  desiring  him  to 
pay  a  sum  mentioned    therein,  either   to 


ledger  ?    28.   How  is  the  ledger  arranged  ?    29. 
What  is  a  bill  of  exchange .-'    30.  What  is  meant 


his  own  order,  or  to  a  third  person,  on  his 
account ;  by  which  means  a  man  at  the 
most  distant  part  of  the  world  may  have 
money  remitted  to  him  from  any  trading 
country.  In  comnion  speech,  such  a  bill 
is  often  called  a  draft.  The  following 
may  be  the  form  of  a  bill  of  exchange. 

"A'ety  York,  March  11,  1832. 
$500. 

"  Twelve  moiiths  after  date,  pay  to  Mr 
Francis  Freeport,  or  his  order,  Jive  hundred 
dollars,  for  value  received,  and  as  advised 
by  Laurence  Long. 

To  Messrs.  John  and  }Villiam  Bull, 
London,  England.''^ 

30.  This  expression,  "  as  advised,"  inti- 
mates that  Mr.  Long  would  write  them 
word  concerning  this  settlement,  and  that 
they  would  be  expected  to  honor,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  pay  the  bill  exactly  at 
the  time  appointed.  When  a  bill  is  pre- 
sented at  the  j)roper  time,  and  the  money 
is  not  paid,  it  is  said  to  be  dishonored. 

31.  To  use  this  bill,  Mr.  Freeport  must 
find  somebody  who  owes  as  much  money 
in  London.  Instead  of  sending  that  cash 
across  the  Atlantic,  he  will  pay  him  $500 ; 
Freeport  will  then  give  him  this  bill ;  and 
the  latter  will  send  it  to  London,  to  the 
person  to  whom  he  owed  the  money,  who 
will  present  it  at  the  proper  time  to  Messrs. 
Bull,  and  will  receive  the  amount.  So 
all  parties  will  be  accommodated,  without 
running  the  hazard  of  losing  the  cash 
itself  in  the  voyage,  although  some  differ- 
ence may  exist  by  the  value  of  money 
being  greater  in  one  place  than  in  the 
other. 

32.  Transactions  of  this  kind  are  gener- 
ally managed  by  persons  called  exchange 
brokers,  who,  being  acquainted  with  the 
different  merchants  abroad  and  at  home, 
can    give  the  information  which    may  be 


by  the  honoring  or  dishonoring  of  a  bill  ?    31.  To 
use  this  bill  what  must  be  done  .'    32.  By  whom 


BANKS,    &C. 


135 


wanted,  for  which  they  are  paid  at  a  re- 
gular rate. 

33.  An  invoice  is  an  account  of  goods 
or  merchandise  shipped  by  merchants  for 
their  correspondents  abroad,  in  which  the 
pecuhar  marks  of  each  package,  with 
other  particulars,  are  set  forth.  Tlie 
prices,  duties,  and  charges  of  every  kind 
upon  them  are  recorded,  and  a  book  is 
kept  into  which  they  are  duly  copied. 

34.  A  foreign  agent  or  factor,  is  a  per- 
son in  some  foreign  land,  employed  by  a 
merchant  to  transact  business  for  him, 
whether  buying  or  selling.  For  this  trou-. 
ble  he  has  his  commission  ;  that  is,  so 
much  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  the  busi- 
ness done. 

35.  The  people  who  insure  shipping 
and  their  cargoes  are  called  Underwriters, 
and  they  make  it  their  business  to  know 
what  the  hazards  are  in  every  sort  of  voy- 
age. Now,  if  they  know,  by  long  experi- 
ence, that  in  the  trade  to  Europe,  for  in- 
stance, not  above  one  ship  in  a  hundred  is 
lost ;  then,  if  they  receive  one  dollar  in 
the  hundred  for  all  they  insure,  they  v/ill, 
unless  peculiar  losses  occur,  be  safe.  And 
if  they  charge  rather  more  than  the  aver- 
age loss,  they  will  gain  a  profit.  Each 
man  uses  his  wisdom  and  experience  in 
such  cases,  and  many  gain  great  wealth 
thereby.  In  some  cases,  the  insurance  is 
much  less ;  in  others,  it  is  more. 

36.  Insurance  may  be  effected  on  many 
different  kinds  of  property.  Several  insur- 
ance-offices have  been  established  against 
loss  by  fire,  losses  at  sea,  and  even  against 
loss  of  life.  The  instrument,  by  which 
the  contract  of  insurance  is  made,  is  call- 
ed a  policy.  Policies  of  insurance  on  lives 
usually  make  an  exception  of  death  by 
suicide. 


are  transactions  of  this  kind  generally  managed? 
33.  What  is  an  invoice  ?  34.  A  foreign  agent  or 
factor  ?  '35.  What  of  underwriters  ?  36.  What  is 
a  policy  of  insurance  .'    37.  What  of  promissory 


37.  Promissory  notes  or  notes  of  hand, 
are  merely  written  promises  to  pay  within 
a  certain  time  the  sums  therein  stated, 
either  to  a  particular  person,  or  to  any 
person  who  may  be  the  bearer  of  the  note. 
A  note  is  said  to  be  endorsed  when  the 
name  of  some  individual,  who  must  be 
responsible  for  its  payment,  is  written 
upon  the  back  of  it.  The  following  is  the 
form  of  a  promissory  note. 

'^Boston,  I7th  February,  1833. 
$150. 

Two  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay 
to  John  Johnson,  Esq.  or  order,  the  sum  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  for  value  re- 
ceived. George  Bale.^^ 

CHAP.  XXXVI. 

BANKS,  &c. 

1.  A  bank  is  a  common  repository, 
where  many  persons  agree  to  keep  their 
money,  that  it  may  always  be  at  their  call  or 
direction.  Banks  are  of  three  kinds,  viz : 
of  deposit,  of  discount,  and  of  circulation. 

2.  A  bank  of  deposit  receives  money  to 
keep  for  the  depositor,  until  he  draws  it 
out.  Another  branch  of  the  banking  busi- 
ness is  the  discounting  of  promissory  notes 
and  bills  of  exchange,  or  loaning  money 
upon  security. 

3.  A  bank  of  circulation  issues  bills  or 
notes  of  its  own,  intended  to  be  the 
circulating  currency  or  medium  of  ex- 
changes, instead  of  gold  and  silver.  Bank.s 
are  also  divided  into  public  and  private. 
In  England,  tliere  is  but  one  ]>ul)lic  bank, 
namely,  the  bank  of  Engl.nnd  ;  whereas, 
in  the  United  States,  most  of  the  banks 
are  public,  and,  in  some  of  the  states,  pri- 
vate banks  of  circulation  are  prohibited  by 
law. 

4.  Banks    are    generally    formed    by    a 


notes  ? 

1 .  What  is  a  bank  .'  How  many  kinds  of  baiiks 
are  there  ?  2.  What  is  a  bank  of  deposit  ?  Of 
discount .'     A  bank  of  circulation  ?     4.  How  are 


136 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


number  of  moneyed  individuals,  who,  for 
carrying  on  the  business  of  exchanging  or 
dealing  in  bullion,  money  and  bills,  advance 
a  considerable  sum  as  a  joint  capital,  which 
also  forms  a  security  to  those  who  deposit 
money  with  them.  The  convenience  of 
such  institutions  in  facilitating  commercial 
transactions,  has  caused  them  to  be  estab- 
lished in  almost  every  city  of  Europe  and 
the  United  States. 

5.  The  bank  of  Venice  was  established 
about  the  year  1157,  the  bank  of  Genoa 
in  1345,  the  bank  of  Amsterdam  in  1609, 
the  bank  of  Hamburgh  in  1619,  the  bank 
of  Rotterdam  in  1635,  the  bank  of  Eng- 
land in  1694,  the  bank  of  Scotland  in  1695, 
and  the  bank  of  France  in  1716. 

6.  The  old  bank  of  the  United  States 
was  incorporated  by  an  act  of  Congress, 
in  1791.  Its  charter  expired  in  1811. 
The  new  United  States  bank  at  Philadel- 
phia was  chartered  in  1816,  with  a  capital 
of  $35,000,000.  Branches,  or  smaller 
banks  connected  with  it,  have  been  estab- 
lished in  the  most  considerable  cities  of 
the  Union. 

EXCHANGES. 

7.  An  exchange  signifies  a  place  in  most 
considerable  cities  wherein  the  merchants, 
agents,  bankers,  brokers,  and  other  persons 
concerned  in  commerce,  meet  at  certain 
times,  to  confer  on  matters  of  business. 
The  most  considerable  exchanges  in  Eu- 
rope are  those  of  London,  Amsterdam, 
Dublin,  Bourdeaux  and  St.  Petersburg. 

8.  The  Royal  Exchange  of  London 
was  founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  in 
1566.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  precisely 
a  century  after  its  erection.  The  present 
magnificent  structure  was  built  in  1668, 
and  cost  80,000  pounds  sterling.  There 
is  an  area,  where  the  merchants  meet  every 
day  at   change, hours ;  and,  for   the   more 

banks  generally  formed  ?  5.  What  of  the  banks 
of  Europe  ?  6.  The  United  States  Bank  ?  7. 
What  is  an  exchange  ?    8.  What  of  the  Royal 


regular  despatch  of  business,  they  dispose 
of  themselves  in  separate  walks,  each  of 
which  has  its  appropriate  name.  The 
Exchange  is  open  every  day  from  eight  in 


the  morning,  till  half  past  four  in  the  after- 
noon ;  but  it  is  most  frequented  between 
one  and  three  o'clock.  The  assembly  is 
then  very  great,  and  the  mixture  of  color, 
dresses,  and  language,  is  very  amusing  to 
one  disposed  to  listen  and  observe. 

9.  The  chambers  over  the  area  are  oc- 
cupied by  Lloyd's  Cofi*ee-house  and  several 
public  companies.  Lloyd's  CoflTee-house 
deserves  some  description.  It  is  the  place 
where  gentlemen  who  are  called  under- 
writers assemble  ;  who  agree  to  insure 
shipping  from  all  the  dangers  of  the  seas, 
or  rather  to  make  good  the  loss,  should 
any  occur,  on  being  paid  a  certain  premium, 
in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  cargo, 
and  the  risk  of  the  v  oyage.  The  principal 
merchants  of  the  city  belong  to  it.  They 
usually  have  the  first  intelligence  of  every 
event  which  regards  the  shipping  interest , 
all  which  is  entered  regularly  in  their 
books.  The  committee  have  often  given 
rewards,  with  a  liberal  hand,  to  soldiers 
and  sailors,  and  to  their  widows  and  orphans. 

10.  There  are  large  vaults  beneath,  which 
are  used  by  the  East-India  Company,  aa 
storehouses  for  their  pepper. 

Exchange  of  London  ?  9.  Lloyd's  Coffee-house  ? 
10.  For  what  purpose  are  the  vaults  of  the  build 
ing  used  ?  11.  What  of  the  New  York  Exchange 


DOCKS,    WHARVES,    &C 


137 


11.  The  New  York  Exchange  is  hand- 
somely built  of  white  marble.  It  has  four 
marble  columns  in  front,  made  of  single 
shafts.  The  exchange  room  is  large,  and 
resorted  to  by  merchants  between  one  and 
three  o'clock.  There  is  a  telegraph  on 
the  top  of  the  building,  which  communi- 
cates with  another  on  Sandy  Hook,  and 
by  this  means  the  merchants  receive  early 
intelligence  of  the  approach  of  their  ves- 
sels. From  the  exchange  are  doors  and 
passages  leading  to  a  commercial  reading- 
room,  and  there  are  numerous  newspaper 
and  other  offices  within  the  edifice. 

12.  The  Merchant's  Exchange  of  Balti- 
more, built  by  private  subscription,  is  a 
very  large  edifice,  in  form  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  letter  H.  It  has  four  wings 
— one  for  the  United  States  Branch  Bank, 
one  for  the  custom-house,  and  one  for  a 
coffee-house.  In  the  centre  is  the  great 
hall,  lighted  from  the  dome,  which  is  ninety 
feet  from  the  floor. 

13.  It  may  not  be  inappropriate  to' 
mention  here  the  bazaars  of  Asia.  The 
word  is  Arabic  originally  denotes  sale  or 
exchange.  Some  are  open,  some  covered 
with  lofty  ceilings  or  domes.  At  the  ba- 
zaars, or  in  the  neighborhood  of  them,  are 
the  coffee-houses,  so  much  frequented  in 
Persia,  and  other  Eastern  countries.  As 
the  Orientals  live  almost  entirely  out  of 
doors,  the  bazaars  of  populous  cities,  be- 
sides their  mercantile  importance,  are  of 
consequence  as  places  of  social  intercourse. 
The  bazaar  of  Ispahan  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  Persia.  At  Constantinople  are  two  ba- 
zaars— the  old  and  new  one.  *•  In  the  Ori- 
ental tales, — for  instance,  in  the  Arabian 
Nights, — the  bazaars  occupy  a  very  con- 
spicuous' place.  The  word  bazaar  has 
been  recently  used  in  Europe  ;  and  there 
is  one  in  London,  which  is  large  and  well- 
frequented. 


The   Merchant's    Exchange    of   Baltimore 
What  of  the  bazaars  of  Asia  ? 


CHAP.  XXXVII. 

DOCKS,  WHARVES,  TELEGRAPHS,  &c. 

1.  A  dock  is  an  artificial  basin,  by  the 
side  of  a  harbor,  made  convenient  either 
for  the  building  or  repairing  of  vessels 
In  America  the  spaces  between  the  wharves 
are  called  docks. 

2.  A  dry  dock  is  a  place  where  the  water 
is  kept  out  by  great  flood-gates,  till  the 
ship  is  built  or  repaired,  when  the  gates 
are  opened,  and  the  water  let  in  to  float 
and  launch  her.  A  ivet  dock  is  a  place 
into  which  the  ship  may  be  hauled,  out  of 
the  tide's  way,  and  so  dock  herself,  or  sink 
for  herself  a  place  to  lie  in. 

3.  The  docks  of  Liverpool  were  the  first 
constructed  in  England  ;  and  many  other 
seaport  towns  have  been  induced  to  follow 
her  example.  It  is  scarcely  thirty  years, 
since  the  whole  of  the  vessels  which  en- 
tered the  port  of  London  were  obliged  to 
remain  moored  in  the  open  stream  of  the 
Thames.  The  London  docks  were  begun 
in  1800,  and  completed  in   1805.     Before 


these  docks  were  formed,  all  the  cargoes 
of  the  shipping  were  exposed  to  the  dep- 
redations of  pilferers,  to  an  immense  ex- 
tent. These  goods  were,  of  necessity,  left 
on  the  various  quays,  when  taken  out  of 
the  ships  ;  and  it  was  not  always  possible 
to  take  them  away  immediately. 

4.  When    it   is    considered,   that    more 


1.  What  is  a  dock?    2.  A  dry  dock?    A  wet 
dock  ;    3.  What  of  the  docks  of  Liverpool  and 

I 


138 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


than  thirteen  thousand  vessels  come  loaded 
to  London  every  year,  which  discharge 
three  millions  of  packages,  some  of  them  of 
great  value,  we  may  suppose  the  vast  confu- 
sion of  such  traffic,  which  may  give  oppor 
tunity  to  the  idle  and  dishonest  to  purloin, 
without  the  possibility  of  detection,  to  a 
very  great  amount.  River  pirates  came 
in  boats,  and  broke  into  the  ships  in  the 
night ;  and  some  thousand  pilferers  were 
strolling  among  the  landed  goods  upon  the 
quays. 

5.  By  unloading  the  shipping  in  these 
docks,  the  greatest  part  of  this  plundering 
is  prevented  :  the  docks  arc  surrounded 
with  high  walls ;  they  have  no  house  ad- 
joining, and  are  locked  up  every  night,  and 
well  watched.  It  has  been  calculated  that, 
by  this  means,  goods  have  been  saved  to 
the  value  of  161,162Z.  in  a  single  year. 

6.  There  is  also  a  marine  police,  estab- 
lished in  1798,  which  patrols  the  river 
with  great  care,  whose  vigilance  cannot 
easily  be  evaded.  Depredators  are  in- 
stantly apprehended,  and  magistr.ates  con- 
stantly attend  at  the  marine  police-offices, 
to  render  speedy  justice. 

7.  Many  of  the  commercial  cities  of  the 
United  States  give  evidence  of  the  enter- 
prise and  liberality  of  their  merchants,  in 
the  neatness  of  their  docks  and  the  extent 
and  regularity  of  their  wharves.  The 
United  States  Dry  Dock,  recently  con- 
structed at  the  Navy  Yard,  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  is  an  object  deserving  some  atten- 
tion. The  Dock  is  341  feet  in  length,  by 
80  in  width,  and  30  feet  deep.  It  is  ca- 
pable of  admitting  the  largest  ship  in  our 
navy — viz.  the  Pennsylvania,  the  entrance 
of  the  dock  being  60  feet  across,  and  the 
width  of  that  ship  being  55  feet.  Besides 
these,  there  is  what  is  denominated  the  float- 


Ijondon  ?  4.  Before  the  construction  of  the  Lon- 
don docks,  were  vessels  liable  to  be  robbed  ?  5. 
How  is  the  plundering  now  prevented  ?  6.  What 
of  the  marine  police  ?    7.  What  of  the  docks  of 


ing  gate,  which  weighs  300  tons.  It  is  built 
like  a  vessel,  is  60  feet  long,  15  wide,  and 
30  in  height — requiring  about  19  feet  of 
water  to  float  it.  This  is  set  in  a  groove 
outside  of  the  other  gates,  filled  with  iron 
and  sunk. 

8.  For  emptying  the  dock  of  water,  a 
powerful  hydraulic  apparatus  is  employed 
wrought  by  a  steam-engine  of  60  horse 
power.  There  are  8  lift  pumps,  each  2 
feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  discharging 
altogether,  at  every  stroke,  12  hogsheads: 
there  are  also  8  chain  pumps,  1  foot  in 
diameter.  The  water  is  first  forced  from 
the  dock  into  wells,  then  into  a  large  reser- 
voir, whence  it  runs  into  the  sea.  The 
weight  of  the  steam-engine  and  machinery 
is  about  122  tons. 

9.  The  floating  gate  is  said  to  contain 
timber  enough  to  build  a  ship  of  300  or 
400  tons;  and  some  3  or  4,000  dollars' 
worth  of  sheathing  and  bolt  copper  have 
already  been  used  upon  it.  The  turning 
gates,  at  high  water,  sustain  a  pressure 
equal  to  about  800  tons. 

THE  TELEGRAPH.  ^ 

10.  The  telegraph  is  a  contrivance  by 
which  intelligence  may  be  conveyed  a  great 
distance  by  means  of  visible  signals.  The 
art  of  conversing,  between  parties  remote 
from  each  other,  by  certain  signs,  previously 
agreed  upon,  is  very  ancient.  To  make 
known  that  some  expected  event  had  actu- 
ally happened,  it  was  only  necessary  to  kindle 
a  fire  on  a  high  hill,  and  the  intelligence  was 
rapidly  spread  :  but  this  sign  must  have 
been  before  agreed  upon,  or  those  who 
saw  it  might  be  uncertain  what  it  meant 
Now,  by  the  telegraph,  whole  sentences 
can  be  rapidly  conveyed,  and  a  regula; 
conversation  can  be  kept  up. 

11.  The   telegraph  used  in  Boston  con 


the  United  States?  The  Charlestown  dry  dock  ' 
8.  How  is  it  emptied  ?  9.  What  of  the  gates .-' 
10.  What  of  the  telegraph?  11.  The  telegraph 
used  in  Boston  ?     12.  Is  a  telegraphic  dictionarv 


' 


DOCKS,    WHARVES,    &C. 


139 


1 


sists  of  an  upright  post  or  mast,  about  forty 
feet  in  height,  having  a  small  movable 
arm  about  six  feet  long  and  twelve  inches 
broa.d,  caWed  the  indicator ;  and  two  longer 
arms  made  of  plank,  each  about  ten  feet 
long,  and  one  foot  broad,  which  are  placed 
at  different  and  convenient  distances  below 
the  indicator,  to  carr)'  on  the  communica- 
tions. The  indicator,  and  arms  are  colored 
black  in  order  to  be  the  better  seen  by  day- 
light.— They  may  be  placed,  each  in  six 
different  positions.  The  several  positions 
denote  the  numerals  from  one  to  six,  so 
that  the  two  arms  together  may  take  twelve 
positions ;  and  this  number  of  positions 
by  the  familiar  principles  of  change  and 
combination,  affords  sufficient  signs  to  ex- 
press any  numeral  from  one  to  many  hun- 
dred thousands. 

12.  'With  the  telegraph  are  used  three 
books  like  dictionaries  containing  sets  of 
numerals  arranged  in  order,  with  the  words 
denoted  by  these  numerals  placed  by  the 
side  of  them,  exactly  upon  the  principle 
of  a  dictionary  of  any  language.  The 
telegraphic  dictionary  only  differs  from 
any  other,  in  having  a  list  of  numerals  in- 
stead of  words  under  each  letter  of  the 
alphabet,  with  the  meanings  following  the 
numerals ;  just  as  in  a  French  dictionary, 
for  example,  the  French  word  would  be 
put  first,  and  then  the  English  signification 
following  it.  Now  the  arms  of  the  tele- 
graph being  placed  in  certain  positions, 
express  particular  numbers,  the  observer 
then  looks  for  the  number  in  his  telegraphic 
dictionary,  and  by  the  side  of  it,  he  finds 
the  word  signified  by  it.' 

13.  There  is  another  kind  of  telegraph 
which  is  used  at  sea,  and  which  is  of  great 
use  in  conveying  intelligence  from  one 
ship  to  another,  or  from  the  ship  to  the 
shore.  A  telegraph  of  flags  has  been  in- 
vented, and  called  the  '  Marine  Telegraph.' 


used  ?     13.  What  of  the  marine  telegraph  ?     14. 
How  many  changes  or  combinations  can  be  made  ? 


The  use  of  these  flags  rests  upon  the  same 
principle  with  the  signal  arms  of  the  land 
telegraph.  They  are  six  in  number,  and 
correspond  to  the  six  positions  of  the  arms 
of  the  land  telegraph  denoting  the  nume- 
rals 1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6 :  they  are  blue  and 
white,  and  all  of  the  same  size,  with  du- 
plicate nuuibers  of  each  flag.  To  them  is 
added  a  conversation  flag,  which  like  the  in- 
dicator of  the  land  telegraph,  shows  that  the 
ship  making  this  signal  desires  to  converse. 

14.  Nearly  ten  thousand  changes  or 
combinations  can  be  made,  designating 
words  and  phrases.  By  this  means  ships 
at  sea  can  communicate  with  each  other, 
even  at  the  distance  of  several  miles,  and 
when  they  approach  the  coast,  can  hold 
correspondence  with  the  land  telegraph. 

LIGHT-HOUSES. 

15.  A  light-house  is  a  building  erected 
upon  a  cape  or  promontory  on  the  sea- 
coast,  or  upon  some  rock  in  the  sea,  and 
having  on  its  top,  in  the  night  time,  a 
great  fire,  or  light,  which  is  constantly 
attended  by  some  careful  person,  so  as 
to  be  seen  at  a  great  distance  from  the 
land.  It  is  used  to  direct  the  shipping 
on  the  coast,  that  might  otherwise  run 
ashore,  or  steer  an  improper  course, 
when  the  darkness  of  the  night  and  the 
uncertainty  of  currents  &c.,  might  render 
their  situation  with  regard  to  the  shore 
extremely  doubtful. 

16.  Lamp  lights  are,  on  many  accounts, 
preferable  to  either  coal  fires  or  candles ; 
and  the  eflTect  of  these  may  be  increased 
by  placing  them  either  behind  glass  hemis- 
pheres, or  before  properly  disposed  glass 
or  metal  reflectors,  which  last  method  is 
now  very  generally  adopted. 

17.  The  most  remarkable  light-house 
ever  erected  is  perhaps  the  famous  Eddy- 
stone  Light-house.  It  is  built  on  one  of 
the  rocks   of  that  name,  which  lie  in  the 


15,  What  is  a  light-house  ?     16.  What  kind  ot 
lights  are  used .     17.  What  is  the  most  remarka- 
l8 


140 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


English  Channel,  about  14  miles  south- 
west from  Plymouth.  As  these  rocks 
were  not  very  much  elevated  above  the 
sea  at  any  time,  and  at  high  water  were 
quite  covered  by  it,  they  formed  a  most 
dangerous  obstacle  to  navigation,  and  sev- 
eral vessels  were  every  season  lost  upon 
them» 

18.  Many  a  gallant  ship,  which  had 
voyaged  in  safety  across  the  whole  breadth 
of  the  Atlantic,  was  shattered  to  pieces  on 
this  hidden  source  of  destruction,  as  it  was 
Hearing  port,  and  went  down  with  its  crew 
in  sight  of  their  native  shores.  It  was 
therefore  very  desirable  that  the  spot 
should,  if  possible,  be  pointed  out  by  a 
warning  light.  But  the  same  circumstan- 
ces which  made  the  Eddystone  rocks  so 
formidable  to  the  mariner,  rendered  the 
attempt  to  erect  a  light-house  upon  them 
a  peculiarly  difficult  enterprise. 

19.  The  first  attempt  to  erect  a  light- 
house on  the  Eddystone  rocks  was  made 
in  1696  ;  and  it  took  four  years  to  com- 
plete the  structure.  The  architect  felt  so 
confident  in  the  strength  of  the  building, 
that  he  frequently  declared,  his  only  wish 
was  to  be  in  it  during  the  greatest  storm 
that  ever  blew  under  the  face  of  the  hea- 
vens, that  he  might  see  what  would  be  the 
effect.  On  the  26th  of  November,  1703, 
he  was  in  the  light-house  superintending 
some  repairs,  when  there  came  on  the 
greatest  tempest  that  was  ever  known  in 
England.  Next  morning  not  a  vestige  of 
the  light-house  was  to  be  seen.  It  had 
been  swept  into  the  deep  from  the  founda- 
tion ;  not  a  stone,  or  beam,  or  iron-bar  re- 
maining on  the  rock.  The  single  thing 
left  was  a  piece  of  iron  chain,  which  had 
got   so  wedged    into  a  deep   cleft  that  it 


ble  light-house  yet  erected  ?  18.  What  of  the 
danger  of  the  Eddystone  rocks  ?  19.  What  of 
the  first  attempt  to  build  a  light-house  on  these 
rocks  ?  20.  Did  any  more  shipwrecks  occur .'' 
21.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  second  light-house  ^ 


stuck  there  till   it  was  cut  out  more  than 
fifty  years  afterwards. 

20.  Such  was  the  end  of  the  first  Eddy 
stone   Light-house.     Soon   after,  a  vessel 
returning   from  Virginia,  was   lost  on   the 
rocks,  when   the  greater  part  of  her  crew 
perished. 

21.  In  1709,  another  light-house  was 
completed  ;  and  this  building,  notwith- 
standing some  severe  storms  which  it  en- 
countered, stood  till  J)ecember,  1755 
when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

22.  In  1759,  another  light-house  was 
erected  by  a  celebrated  mechanic,  named 
Smeaton.  This  light-house  is  made  of 
stone,  and  is  a  round  building,  gradually 
decreasing  in  circumference  from  the  base 
up  to  a  certain  height,  like  the  trunk  of  an 
oak,  from  which  the  architect  states  that 
he  took  the  idea  of  it. 

23.  Among  many  other  tempests  which 
it  has  endured  unshaken,  was  one  of  ex- 
traordinary fury,  which  occurred  in  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1762.  One  individ- 
ual, Smeaton  tells  us,  who  was  fond  of 
predicting  its  fate,  declared,  on  that  occa- 
sion, that  if  it  still  stood  it  would  stand 
forever. 

24.  On  the  morning  after  the  storm  had 
spent  its  chief  fury,  many  anxious  observ- 
ers pointed  their  glasses  to  the  spot,  where 
they  scarcely  expected  ever  again  to  dis- 
cern it,  and  a  feeling  almost  of  wonder 
mixed  itself  with  the  joy  and  thankfulness 
of  the  architect's  friends,  as  they  with 
difficulty  descried  its  form  through  the 
still  dark  and  troubled  air.  It  was  unin- 
jured even  to  a  pane  of  glass  in  the  lantern. 
In  a  letter  from  Plymouth  upon  this  oc- 
casion the  writer  says,  '  it  is  now  my  most 
steady  belief,  as  well  as  every-body's  here 
that  its  inhabitants  are  rather  more  secure 


22.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  present  one 
erected.?  23.  Of  what  is  it  built.?  24.  Has  it 
withstood  any  violent  storms.?  Is  there  now 
much  doubt  of  its  security  ?  >l 


CUSTOMS,    TA 


RIFF,     &< 


141 


in  a  storm,  under  the  united  force  of  wind 
and  water,  tlian  we  are  in  our  houses  from 
the  former  only.' 

CHAP.  XXXVIII. 

CUSTOMS,  TARIFF,  &c. 

1.  The  customs  or  duties  are  the  taxes 
customarily  paid  to  the  Government,  upon 
the  merchandise  brought  into  the  country 
or  sent  out  of  it.  These  vary  according 
as  distinct  acts  of  Congress  have  given  the 
right  to  take  more  or  less  upon  the  various 
articles  of  commerce.  When  goods  are 
brought  into  the  country  they  are  said  to 
be  imported ;  when  they  are  sent  away, 
they  are  exported. 

2.  There  is  a  custom-house  in  every  p<brt 
in  the  country,  to  which  vessels  come, 
to  unload  their  cargoes.  The  customs  are 
not  gathered  without  a  great  number  of 
officers  to  assist  in  the  collection.  As  soon 
as  a  vessel  enters  the  harbor  from  abroad, 
it  is  visited  by  a  Custom-house  officer,  call- 
ed a  Tide  Waiter,  who  continues  on  board 
till  the  ship  arrives  at  its  moorings.  His 
business  is,  to  see  that  no  commodities  are 
parted  with,  till  all  has  been  properly  en- 
tered at  the  Custom-house,  in  order  to 
have  the  duty  paid  on  all  the  goods. 

3.  The  endeavors  to  prevent  smuggling, 
as  it  is  called,  occasions  great  numbers  of 
officers,  sailors,  cutters,  &c.,  to  be  kept  on 
the  constant  look-out.  This  is  sometimes 
called  the  Preventive  Service.  They  have 
fast-sailing  cutters,  in  which  they  go  to 
pursue  the  vessels  which  they  suspect  to 
be  loaded  with  contraband  goods ;  and 
sometimes  they  have  a  battle  on  land  with 
the  smugglers. 

4.  Perhaps  you  do  not  know  what 
smuggling  may  be.  Goods  are  said  to  be 
smuggled  when  they  are  brought  into  the 


1.  What  of  the  customs  or  duties 


When  are 

? 


goods  said  to  be  imported  ?     When  exported 
2.  Is  there  a  custom-house  in  every  port,  which 


country,  without  the  lawful  duty  being 
paid  upon  them.  People  sometimes  man- 
age to  smuggle  goods  of  considerable 
value  ;  and  they  usually  land  them  in  the 


night  time  on  some  desolate  and  solitary 
coast. 

5.  The  history  of  customs  is  a  little  cu- 
rious, when  we  compare  modern  times 
with  those  of  ancient  days.  In  the  time 
of  Henry  the  Third,  the  customs  of  Eng- 
land on  foreign  merchandise  did  not 
amount  to  more  than  75/.,  for  the  whole 
of  the  summer  of  the  year  1268.  During 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  great  exertions 
were  made  upon  the  seas ;  and  the  cus- 
toms amounted  to  50,000Z.  per  annum.  In 
1641,  in  the  middle  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
I.  they  were  increased  tenfold,  even  to 
500,000Z,  At  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  George  III.  their  produce  at  all  the 
ports  of  England  was  1,969,933Z.  And  in 
the  year  1808,  we  find  the  customs  and 
excise  bringing  in  27,787,000?. 

6.  The  history  of  the  building,  too,  may 
be  noticed.  In  early  times,  the  customs 
were  taken  on  the  quay,  chiefly  at  Billings- 
gate, amid  all  the  hurry  and  bustle  of  that 
noisy  place.  A  custom-house  was  at  length 
reared,  for  this  increasingly  important  pur- 
pose. This  was  destroyed  by  the  great 
fire  in  1666  ;  and  the  building  which  was 


vessels  frequent?  3.  What  of  smuggling?  4 
When  are  goods  said  to  be  smuggled  ?  5.  What 
is  said  of  the  increase  of  customs  in  England  * 


142 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


erected  in  its  place  perished  by  fire  in 
1814,  when  great  confusion  was  occasion- 
ed by  the  burning  of  books  and  papers ; 
and  much  loss  sustained  by  the  destruction 
of  valuable  property  therein  deposited, 
consisting  of  pearls  and  other  costly  ar- 
ticles. 

7.  A  new  and  much  larger  building  was 
then  raised.  Many  houses  were  purchas- 
ed to  obtain  room,  at  the  expense  of  more 
than  40,000Z.,  the  whole  expense  of  the 
building  being  255,0001.  The  front  mea- 
sures about  four  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
feet,  and  its  depth  is  one  hundred  and 
seven  feet.  This  building  was  opened  for 
business  in  May  1817.  But  in  1825,  the 
central  part  of  the  building  gave  way,  not 
having  been  properly  supported,  and  the 
Long  Room,  as  it  is  called,  fell  in. 

8.  The  Long  Room  is  the  principal 
public  room  for  business ;  it  is  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety  feet  long,  fifty-six  feet 
wide,  and  fifty -five  feet  high.  The  floors 
are  now  of  stone,  and  the  doors  which 
separate  the  apartments  are  of  iron,  to 
prevent,  in  future,  accidents  by  fire. 

9.  Entering  by  the  grand  staircase  at 
the  end,  you  come  through  the  lobbies,  to 
this  busy  Long  Room.  Here  the  nume- 
rous clerks  are  employed  with  their  huge 
books,  keeping  account  of  every  vessel 
coming  in  or  going  out  of  the  port ;  reck- 
oning up  the  amount  of  the  various  duties 
to  be  paid,  and  signing  and  delivering  the 
documents  to  authorise  the  landing,  and 
examining  the  cargoes  of  the  ships  which 
have  made  a  due  report  of  them,  in  order 
to  distribute  their  contents  to  the  various 
merchants ;  or  of  such  ships  outward- 
bound  as  are  clearing  outwards,  having 
paid  all  their  dues,  and  intending  to  de- 
part for  their  several  foreign  destinations. 

10.  The  total  value  of  imports  into  the 


6.  The  history  of  the  building  ?  7.  The  new 
one?  8.  The  Long  Room  ?  9.  What  of  the  em- 
ployment of  the  clerks  ?    10.  What  was  the  total 


United    States   for    the    year    1832   waa 
$101,029,266,  of  which  $10,731,037,  were 
in  foreign  vessels.     For  the  year  preced- 
ing, the  total  value  of  imports  was  $103, 
191,124. 

11.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  for 
the  year  ending  September  1832,  was 
$76,176,943  :  that  of  those  of  the  preced- 
ing year  was  $81,310,583.  The  domestic 
articles  exported  amounted  to  $63,137,172, 
and  the  foreign  to  $24,1039,473. 

12.  A  tariffis  a  table  or  catalogue,  con- 
taining the  names  of  different  sorts  of  mer- 
chandise, with  the  duties  to  be  paid,  as 
settled  by  authority  amongst  trading  na- 
tions. The  tariff  of  the  United  States  has 
begin  subjected  to  alterations  from  time  to 
time,  as  the  wants  of  the  people  de- 
manded. 

13.  I  will  now  undertake  to  explain  to 
you  some  of  those  terms  connected  with 
custom-house  matters,  which  you  may 
often  hear,  but  may  not  always  understand. 
A  drawback  in  commerce,  is  an  allowance 
made  to  merchants,  on  the  re-exportation 
of  certain  goods,  which  in  some  cases  con- 
sists of  the  whole,  in  others  of  a  part,  of 
the  duties  v^hich  had  been  paid  upon  the 
importation. 

14.  Debenture  is  the  certificate  deliver 
ed  at  the  custom-house,  when  the  exporter 
of  any  goods  or  merchandise  has  complied 
with  the  regulations,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  is  entitled  to  a  bounty  or  draw- 
back on  the  exportation.  This  certificate 
is  signed  by  the  officer  of  the  customs 
when  the  goods  are  regularly  entered  and 
shipped,  and  the  vessel  is  cleared  out  for 
her  intended  voyage. 

15.  An  embargo  is  an  arrest  on  ships  or 
merchandise,  by  public  authority;  or  a 
prohibition  of  state,  commonly  on  foreign 
ships,  in  time  of  war,  to  prevent  their  go- 
value  of  imports  into  the  U.  S.  for  the  year  1832 ' 
11.  Of  exports  .=*  12.  What  is  the  meaning  of  tariff  ? 
13.  A  drawback.?  14.  Debenture ?  15.  Embargo-' 


I 


CUSTOMS,  TARIFF,  &C. 


148 


ing  out  of  port,  and  sometimes  to  prevent 
their  coming  in. 

16.  Quarantine  is  the  period  during 
which  a  ship,  coming  from  a  port  suspect- 
ed of  contagion,  or  having  a  contagious 
sickness  on  board,  is  forbidden  intercourse 
with  the  place  where  she  arrives.  The 
term  is  derived  from  the  Italian  quarantina, 
a  space  of  forty  days,  because  originally 
that  was  the  fixed  period  for  all  ships  un- 
der such  circumstances.  But  the  time  of 
a  ship's  detention  is  now  very  various  ac- 
cording to  the  exigencies  of  the  case. 

17.  Privateers  are  fighting  vessels  fitted 
out  by  private  persons,  during  war,  where- 
in, at  their  own  hazard,  they  plunder  the 
enemy,  chiefly  attacking  merchant  vessels. 
They  must  have  a  commission jfrom  gov- 
ernment, and  must  conform  to  all  the  rules 
of  war,  and  the  laws  of  nations.  They 
pay  a  part  of  their  prizes  to  government  for 
this  permission,  and  the  remainder  the 
owners  divide  among  themselves,  in  such 
proportions  as  have  been  agreed  upon. 

18.  ''The public  debt  is  a  debt  contracted 
by  Congress  in  behalf  of  the  United  States. 
This  is  done  by  an  act  of  Congress,  which 
authorizes  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  (or 
any  other  person,  as  the  act  may  express) 
to  borrow  money,  and  issue  certificates  for 
the  sum  borrowed.  The  act  expresses  the 
whole  sum  to  be  borrowed,  the  amount  of 
interest  to  be  paid,  and  the  time  when  the 

;  principal  is  to«be  paid.  Books  of  subscrip 
tion  are  opened  in  the  principal  cities,  and 
iny  person  who  chooses  to  lend,  subscribes. 
Each  lender  receives  a  certificate  that  he 
is  a  creditor  of  the  United  States  for  the 
sum  by  him  loaned,  which  certificate  con 
forms  to  the  act  authorizing  the  loan. 

19.  <Of  these  certificates  a  registry  is 
made  at  some  of  the  branch  banks  of  the 

).  Bie.  What  of  quarantine?  17.  Of  Privateers? 
-  lis.  What  of  the  public  debt  ?  19.  How  are  the 
01  liertificates  issued  to  the  lenders  ?  20.  Can  such 
\\  p-ransfers  be  made  as  often  as  the  owner  chooses  ? 


United  States,  as  the  practice  now  is ;  for- 
merly there  were  loan -offices.  Any  per- 
son, who  is  the  owner  of  a  certificate  can 
sell  it;  and  in  such  case,  he  assigns  his 
certificate  to  the  purchaser.  That  certifi- 
cate is  produced  at  the  bank,  and  a  new 
certificate  is  issued  to  the  purchaser. 

20.  '  Such  transfers  are  made  whenever, 
and  as  often  as  the  owner  chooses  to  trans- 
fer, and  without  any  expense  to  the  owner. 
The  interest  is  paid  quarterly  at  the  bank 
to  the  person  there  registered  as  owner. 
This  public  debt  is  known  by  the  general 
name  of  stocks.  It  always  has  a  market 
value,  sometimes  above,  and  sometimes  be- 
low, the  nominal  value.  It  is  a  subject  of 
speculation,  as  any  thing  else  may  be,  which 
is  bought  to  be  sold,  on  the  expectation  of 
profit. 

21.  Most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  have 
such  stocks.  Speculations  are  carried  on 
in  them  to  a  surprising  amount.  Fortunes 
are  won  and  lost  in  a  day.  The  present 
public  debt  of  the  United  States  is  less  than 
four  cents  to  each  inhabitant  of  the  United 
States;  while  the  public  debt  of  Great 
Britain,  at  present,  is  something  more  than 
twenty-five  cents  to  each  inhabitant  of  the 
whole  world ! ' 

22.  My  young  readers  may  frequently 
have  heard  persons  talking  about  trading 
in  the  funds.  The  funding  system  is  a 
method  by  which  modern  governments 
have  sought  to  give  security  to  public 
loans,  and  thereby  strengthen  the  public 
credit.  It  was  first  used  in  England,  and 
afterwards  followed  by  all  the  other  states, 
which  paid  attention  to  their  credit.  It 
provides  that  on  the  creation  of  a  public 
loan,  funds  shall  immediately  be  formed, 
and  secured  by  law,  for  the  redemption  of 
the  capital  itself.    This  gradual  redeeming 


By  what  name  is  the  public  debt  generally  known-* 
21,  Have  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  such 
stocks  ?  What  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States?     Of  Great  Britain?     22.  What  of  the 


144 


BOOK    OF     COMMERCE. 


of  the  capital  is  called  the  sinking  of  the 
debt,  and  the  fund  appropriated  for  this 
purpose  is  called  the  sinking  fund. 

23.  Variations  in  the  saleable  value  of 
the  public  funds  at  first  were  caused  chiefly 
by  political  events,  w^hich  were  supposed  to 
affect  either  the  authority  of  those  by  whom 
the  debts  were  contracted,  or  the  means 
of  paying  them  ;  but  since  their  great  in- 
crease has  induced  many  persons  to  make 
buying,  and  selling  shares  therein  a  regular 
trade,  the  fluctuations  of  the  current  price 
in  general  depends  principally  on  the  pro- 
portion of  buyers  and  sellers,  and  on  the 
schemes  and  combinations  in  which  they 
engage  in  support  of  their  respective  spec- 
ulations. 

24.  The  chief  part  of  the  public  funds 
in  England  consists  of  perpetual  annuities, 
or  those  debts  on  which  a  stipulated  rate 
of  interest  is  to  continue  to  be  paid,  unless 
the  principal  should  be  redeemed  ;  the  oth- 
er parts  consist  of  annuities  for  a  certain 
number  of  years,  and  life  annuities. 

25.  The  perpetual  annuities  are  distin- 
guished by  different  titles,  according  to  the 
rate  of  interest  they  pay,  or  the  time  and 
purpose  of  their  creation  ;  and  when  gov- 
ernment, by  a  new  loan,  contracts  an  ad- 
ditional debt,  bearing  a  certain  fixed  in- 
terest, it  is  usual  to  add  the  capital  thus 
created,  to  the  amount  of  that  part  of  the 
public  debt  which  bears  the  same  interest ; 
hence  we  hear  of  3  per  cent.,  4  per  cent., 
and  5  per  cent.,  consolidated  annuities. 

26.  The  practice  of  stock-johbing  is  a 
kind  of  traffic  carried  on  amongst  persons 
who  possess  but  little  or  no  property  in  any 
of  the  funds,  yet  who  contract  for  the  sale 
or  transfer  of  stock  at  some  future  period, 
the  latter  part  of  the  day,  or  the  next  set- 
tling day,  at  a  price  agreed  on  at  the  time. 

funding  system  ?  23.  What  were  the  variations 
in  the  funds  produced  by  ?  24.  Of  what  does  the 
chief  part  of  the  funds  in  England  consist  ?  25. 
By  what  titles  are  the  perpetual  annuities  distin- 


Such  bargains  are  called  tiyne  hctrgains, 
and  are  contrary  to  law ;  and  this  practice 
is  gambling  in  every  sense  of  the  word. 
It  is,  however,  carried  on  to  a  great  extent. 

27.  The  terms,  bulls  and  bears  originated 
in  the  London  Stock  Exchange ;  as  they 
are  often  in  the  mouths  of  people,  it  may 
be  well  enough  to  know  their  signification. 
Bulls  are  buyers,  and  bears  sellers.  In 
New  York,  a  traffic  in  Bank  Stock  is  often 
carried  on,  in  which  these  words  are  used. 

28.  A  Mint  is  a  place  where  money  is 
coined  by  the  authority  of  government. 
The  word  coin  is  from  the  French  lan- 
guage, and  signifies  a  stamp.  Our  gold, 
silver  and  copper  money  is  thus  derived. 
Congress  establishes  the  proportions  of 
pure  metal,  and  of  alloy,  and  the  weight 
of  the  mixture,  which  makes  any  piece  of 
money. 

29.  The  treasury  of  the  United  States 
buys  the  metal,  causes  it  to  be  tried  at  the 
mint,  and  prepared  in  the  circular  form  in 
which  we  see  it.  The  pieces  are  then 
placed  under  the  action  of  powerful  ma- 
chinery to  be  coined  or  stamped  The 
money  is  paid  out  by  the  treasury  and  so 
gets  into  circulation.  Banks  and  individ- 
uals may  have  bullion  coined  at  the  mint. 
The  United  States  mint  is  at  Philadelphia. 

30.  Congress  have  the  power  of  securing 
to  the  authors  of  new  and  useful  inventions, 
or  improvements,  an  exclusive  right  of 
making,  using  or  selling  them  for  the  tenn 
of  fourteen  years.  This  object  is  effected 
by  petitioning  for  a  patent,  and  sending 
with  the  petition  a  description  of  the  in-  j 
vention  or  improvement.  .  f 

31.  A  patent,  unless  it  be  for  a  frivolous      j 
or  useless  object,  is  always  granted  when      [ 
applied  for ;  and  an  infringement  of  it  may 
be  prosecuted  by  the  patentee. 


guished  ?      26.    What  is  said  of  the  practice  of  ^ 
stock-jobbing.?      27.     Of   the   terms,   bulls   and 
bears.?     28.    What  is  a  mint.?     29.   How  is  the 
coin  issued  ?     30.  What  of  patents  ? 


HISTORY    OF     COMMERCE. 


145 


A    CONCISE    HISTORY    OF    COMMERCE. 


CHAP.  XXXIX. 

1.  I  have  drawn  up  a  History  of  Com- 
merce, that  you  may  see  the  course  it  has 
taken  among  the  nations,  the  vast  bene- 
fits it  confers,  and  how  much  better  a  me- 
dium of  power  it  is  than  conquest  and  the 
Bword. 

2.  The  first  hii»it  we  have  of  distant  na- 
tions trading  together,  appears  in  the  book 
of  GenesiSf  chap,  xxxvii.  25,  when  the 
cruel  brethren  of  Joseph  sold  him  to  a 
caravan  of  Ishmaelites,  who  were  convey- 
ing their  precious  commodities  into  Egypt, 
as  spicery,  balm,  and  myrrh.  They  are 
called  MidianiteSj  v.  36.  The  country  of 
Midian  is  part  of  Arabia,  south-east  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  They  were  going  through  the 
land  of  Canaan  to  Egypt,  which  was  then 
a  highly  cultivated  kingdom.  The  myrrh 
was  the  produce  of^  Arabia,  and  the  balm 
was  of  Gilead,  through  which  they  hadj 
travelled.  But  the  spices  intimate  that 
the  Arabians  had,  very  early,  nautical 
connexion  with  the  country  we  call  India, 
where  chiefly  the  finer  spices  grow;  if 
so,  commerce,  in  its  widest  meaning,  must 
have  been  better  cultivated    than  we  are 

j     apt  to  suppose.     Certainly  the  shores  of 
,^     Arabia,  on  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Red  Sea, 
must  have  given  great  facilities  to  mercan- 
tile enterprises. 

3.  The  central  situation  of  Egypt  has 
made    it   always    the    emporium  of  com- 

9  merce.  By  caravans  the  treasures  of  Asia 
and  Africa  were  brought  thither.  Trade 
was  at  all  times  in  esteem,  because  of  the 
wealth  it  brought.  But  of  the  maritime 
trade  of  the  Egyptians  we  have  no  regular 
account ;  for  they  neglected  the  sea  super- 
stitiously  for  many  ages.  Their  own  pro- 
ductions, among  which  corn  was  in  great 


2.  What  is  tlie  first  hint  we  have  of  the  traffic 
13 


abundance,  their  numerous  arts  and  man- 
ufactures, enabled  them  to  purchase  from 
neighboring  nations,  and  by  making  tiie 
commerce  reciprocal,  they  made  it  also 
gainful.  The  advantage  of  navigation  by 
the  Nile  was  not  neglected  by  them ;  their 
internal  trade,  which  distributed  the  lux- 
uries thus  obtained,  gained  great  facility 
for  transporting  them  from  Rameses  to 
Syene,  by  means  of  this  lordly  river. 
The  riches  and  power  once  enjoyed  in 
Egypt,  have  left  imperishable  testimonials 
to  the  present  day,  in  its  massy  buildings, 
and  splendid  ruins  of  temples  and  tombs. 
Commerce  furnishes  wealth  in  the  most 
quiet,  honorable,  and  abundant  manner ; 
and  wherever  wealth  abounds,  the  country 
will  be  adorned  presently.  Convenience, 
pride,  patriotism,  will  contrive  many  last- 
ing modes  of  storing  up  this  wealth,  in 
comforts  for  the  people,  splendor  for  their 
rulers,  and  sacred  edifices  for  their  religion. 
4.  Tyre  and  Sidon,  cities  of  Phoenice, 
washed  by  the  Mediterranean,  are  next 
found  rising  into  notice.  Their  country 
was  nothing  as  to  produce  ;  industry  alone 
made  their  rocks  productive  ;  and  com- 
merce, by  feeding  industry,  was  itself  en- 
riched. These  people  possessed  but  a 
small  territory,  a  narrow  and  unproductive 
strip  of  land,  and  at  length  only  a  small 
island.  They  were  beset  on  the  land  side 
by  powerful  nations,  and  could  not  enlarge 
their  borders  by  conquest.  The  sea  was 
open  to  them,  and  they  achieved  their 
victories  on  the  briny  wave.  The  ocean 
carried  them  to  many  countries  bordering 
upon  its  shores,  and  gave  them  security 
from  robbers  in  conveying  their  mer- 
chandise from  port  to  port ;  for  there  was 
scarcely  any  other   people  wiio  ventured 


of  distant  nations  ?      3.   What  of  the  trade  of 


146 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


upon  the  open  seas.  Sidon  is  called  great, 
iind  Tyre  a  strong  city,  so  early  as  the 
time  of  Joshua.    (Chap.  xix.  28,  29.) 

5.  Commerce  is  the  mother  of  many  in- 
ventions, and  affords  the  means  of  bring- 
ing them  to  maturity.  The  Phoenicians 
were  obliged  to  count,  in  order  to  value 
tlieir  riches ;  they  are  said  to  liave  been 
the  inventors  of  arithmetic.  No  mercan- 
tile concern  can  be  conducted  without  this 
.simple  but  wonderful  science. 

6.  Joshua,  in  his  conquest  of  Canaan, 
disturbed  the  Phoenicians,  many  of  whom 
fled,  finding  they  were  not  able  to  resist 
liim.  Tyre  and  Sidon  could  not  contain 
all  the  refugees;  numerous  colonies  were 
went  out  by  the  Phoenician  merchants,  to 
various  places,  on  both  sides  of  the  Me- 
(literranean;  by  which  means  their  own 
traffic  was  extended  and  secured.  Two 
pillars,  erected  in  Africa,  near  the  straits, 
had  on  them  inscriptions  in  Phoenician 
letters,  intimating,  that  the  people  who 
rame  there  had  fled  from  'Joshua  the 
robber,'  as  they  called  him.  This  was  in 
the  twenty-sixth  century  of  the  world's 
age,  or  fifteenth  before  Christ. 

7.  About  eleven  hundred  years  before 
Christ,  in  the  time  of  David,  the  Phoeni- 
cians, in  the  true  spirit  of  commerce,  con- 
tinually extended  their  voyages ;  not  con- 
tent with  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  they 
passed  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  two  moun- 
tains so  called,  one  on  the  shore  of  Spain, 
tiie  other  in  Africa,  and  ventured  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  established  peaceful 
settlements  for  trade,  wherever  they  went. 
They  found  the  inhabitants  of  what  is 
now  Andalusia,  in  a  fruitful  country,  with 
plenty  of  gold,  of  which,  indeed,  their  com- 
mon utensils  were  made  ;  and  one  of  their 
ships  was  so  overloaded  with  silver,  that 
they  had  a  dangerous  voyage  home.     The 


Egypt  ?  4.  Tyre  and  Sidon  ?  5.  The  Phoenicians? 
0.  Joshua  ?  The  inscription  on  the  two  pillars  ? 
7.  Where  did  the  Phoenicians  extend  their  corn- 


Phoenicians  formed  a  'settlement  on  an 
island  called  by  them  Gadir :  the  city  is 
now  called  Cadiz. 

8.  The  Israelites  were  an  inland  peo- 
ple, and  never  famous  for  maritime  affairs. 
David  raised  his  kingdom  by  conquests. 
When  he  wanted  cedar  to  build  him  a 
house,  he  applied  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre, 
with  whom  he  lived  in  amity,  and  who 
sent  it  by  sea.  From  the  same  king  he 
obtained  workmen  also,  for  his  buildings. 

9.  Solomon  saw  the  advantage  of  com- 
merce, and  employed  his  wealth  in  endea- 
voring to  obtain  a  share  of  it.  Hiram, 
king  of  Tyre,  assisted  him  with  ship- 
builders and  seamen.  They  built  their 
fleets  at  a  port  on  the  Red  Sea.  The 
ships  sailed  to  Ophir,  which  seems  to  have 
been  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa ;  and 
they  brought  back  gold,  silver,  ivory,  cu- 
rious woods,  apes,  and  peacocks.  They 
were  three  years  on  their  voyage ;  and 
many  have  thought  they  sailed  all  round 
Africa,  and  returned  home  by  the  Medi- 
terranean. One  voyage  to  Ophir  brought 
him  in  two  millions  of  our  money,  in  gold 
only.  Solomon  had  also  great  traffic  with 
Egypt,  from  whence  was  brought  mer- 
chandise not  only  for  his  own  supply,  but 
also  for  the  king  of  the  Hittites,  and  the 
kings  of  Syria.  (1  Kings,  x.  29.)  Chariots, 
horses,  and  fine  linen  were  the  chief  com- 
modities thus  obtained.  His  wealth  and 
splendor,  as  much  as  his  wisdom,  raised 
his  fame,  and  spread  it  far  and  wide ;  so 
that  the  queen  of  Sheba  was  drawn  to 
visit  him.  The  gold  she  gave  him  was 
worth  above  £600,000  sterling  ;  besides 
which,  she  brought  him  precious  stones, 
and  such  spices  as  had  never  before  been 
known  ;  perhaps,  nutmegs  and  cloves  from 
the  Eastern  Isles. 

10.  The  grandeur  to  which  Israel  rose. 


merce  ?  What  setttlement  did  they  form  ?  What 
is  it  now  called  ?  8.  What  of  the  Israelites  ?  9 
Solomon  ?    Ophir  ?    The  visit  of  the  queen  of 


BISTORT    OP    COMMERCE. 


147 


during  the  long  and  peaceful  reign  of 
Solomon,  sank  as  rapidly  under  his  son 
Rehoboam.  The  loss  of  ten  tribes  reduc- 
ed the  kingdom  of  Judah  greatly,  although 
it  continued  respectable  a  long  while.  As 
concerns  commerce,  we  see  Jehoshaphat, 
eight  hundred  and  ninety-seven  years  be- 
fore Christ,  endeavoring  to  revive  it,  but 
his  ships  were  wrecked,  and  the  design 
totally  failed. 

11.  About  eight  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
years  before  Christ,  we  have  reason  to 
place  the  arrival  of  Elissa,  called  also 
Dido,  in  Africa,  and  the  building  of  Car- 
thage, w^hose  commercial  transactions  be- 
came famous  throughout  the  civilized 
world,  and  whose  prosperity  was  long  il- 
lustrious. This  was  a  Phoenician  colony  ; 
and  we  may  remark,  that  those  whom  they 
sent  out  came  peaceably,  as  merchants, 
with  property  for  trade,  and  became  bene- 
ficial to  the  several  countries  where  they 
settled.  Colonies  sent  out  by  other  na- 
tions were  armed  bands  of  robbers,  who 
went  to  plunder  and  destroy,  and  were 
therefore  the  terror  and  ruin  of  the  subju- 
gated inhabitants. 

12.  Carthage  rose  to  great  wealth,  and 
flourished  for  seven  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  years.  She  planted  many  colonies ; 
till  changing  her  mercantile  character  for 
a  military  one,  she  wrought  her  own  ruin. 
All  around  her  in  Africa,  in  Spain,  at  New 
Carthage  now  Carthagena,  in  Sicily,  and 
the  neighboring  islands,  her  dominion  was 
owned  :  but  it  was  an  iron  sceptre  she 
wielded,  which,  by  oppressing,  irritated 
her  subjects,  who  applied  to  Rome  for 
assistance.  Rome  was  then  beginning  to 
domineer,  and  was  glad  of  an  invitation  to 
carry  her  arms  beyond  Italy.  The  conse- 
quence was  long  and  desperate  wars  with 
Carthage,  called  the  three  Punic  wars ;  in 
the  last  of  which,  Carthage  was  complete- 


Sheba  ?  10.  What  of  Israel  ?  11.  Carthage  ?  12.  Its 
wealth  ?  13.  Commerce  .'  14.  Tyre  ?  15.  What  of 


ly  destroyed,  B.  C.  146.     During  the  first 
Punic  war,  Carthage  contained  seven  hun- 
dred thousand  inhabitants :   at  its  destruc 
tion,  scarcely  five  thousand  were  found  in 
it. 

13.  They  had  traded  through  the  Straits 
northward  to  Tartessus,  or  Cadiz,  and  to 
the  Scilly  Islands,  adjacent  to  Cornwall,  in 
England,  called  then  the  Cassiterides,  for 
tin  ;  and  southwards,  along  the  coast  of  Afri- 
ca, to  a  considerable  distance  :  Kerne,  now 
Mogador,  being  a  central  emporium  for 
them.  Their  most  flourishing  time  was 
about  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  be- 
fore Christ. 

14.  The  account  of  Carthage  is,  in- 
deed, but  a  branch  of  the  history  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  from  which  the  Carthaginians 
were  a  colony.  The  power  of  Tyre  was 
so  great,  that  when  the  city  was  attacked 
by  Salmanasar,  king  of  Assyria,  with  a 
vast  army,  and  also  a  fleet  of  seventy  ves- 
sels, the  Tynans,  with  only  twelve  ships, 
defeated  them  entirely,  and  took  five  hun- 
dred prisoners. 

15.  The  ships  of  that  period  seem  to 
have  been  little  better  than  open  boats. 
Corinth,  about  the  year  700  B.  C.  distin- 
guished itself  as  a  maritime  power,  and 
built  ships  with  triple  the  numbers  of 
rowers  in  three  ranks  or  tiers. 

16.  We  may  notice  here  a  circumstance 
which  was  then  thought  dreadful,  a  storm 
in  the  Mediterranean,  which  drove  Colaeus 
of  Samos  (who  was  steering  for  Egypt) 
along  its  whole  length,  and  throdgh  the 
Straits,  presenting  to  his  astonished  eyes 
the  wide  Atlantic.  He  came  then  to  Tar- 
tessus, on  the  western  coast  of  Spain. 
Here  he  traded  to  great  advantage,  and 
returned  to  Greece  inmiensely  rich. 

17.  In  6*07,  Necos,  king  of  Egypt,  sent 
a  fleet  down  the  Red  Sea,  which,  coast- 
ing the  whole  of  Africa,  returned  by  the 


Corinth.?  16.  Colseus  of  Samos?  17.  Necos,  king 
of  Egypt.'   18   Trre'    19.  What  did  Alexander 


148 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


Mediterranean.  Those  voyagers  report- 
ed, that  they  had  seen  the  noonday  sun  at 
their  right  hand,  or  north  of  them.  This, 
which  proves  to  us  that  they  actually  sail- 
ed round  the  whole  of  Africa,  seemed  at 
that  time  so  unaccountable,  that  Herodo- 
tus, who  tells  us  of  the  voyage,  says  he 
cannot  believe  it. 

18.  It  is  about  the  year  588,  B.  C.  that 
we  may  place  the  great  splendor  of  Tyre, 
of  which  we  have  an  account  extreme- 
ly interesting,  in  the  26th,  27th,  and  28th 
chapters  of  Ezekiel's  prophecy  ;  where  we 
find  the  rich  supply  brought  to  that  fa- 
mous city,  whose  merchants  were  princes, 
whose  pride  made  her  say,  "  I  sit  as  a 
queen,  and  shall  never  see  adversity."  The 
whole  is  extremely  interesting,  and  worth 
reading,  as  a  correct  display  of  the  com- 
merce of  that  period  and  of  that  region  ;  al- 
though its  length  makes  it  unfit  to  be  here 
transcribed.  We  find  the  common  con- 
sequences of  great  wealth,  luxury,  pride, 
and  sins  of  the  grossest  names  resulting  to 
the  Tyrians.  These  will  draw  down  the 
vengeance  of  God  upon  any  nation ;  and 
we  need  not  wonder  at  the  threatenings 
which  accompany  this  description.  The 
judgments  here  denounced  came  upon 
them  partly  by  the  overwhelming  invasion 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  from  585  to  572,  and 
more  completely  by  the  arms  of  Alexan- 
der in  332,  B.  C.  We  see  at  this  day  the 
fulfilment  of  it ;  for  Tyre  is  now  bald  as 
the  top  of  a  rock,  a  place  for  fishermen  to 
dry  their  nets. — [Ezekiel,  xxvi.  14.) 

19.  The  Phoenicians,  by  Tyre,  kept  the 
command  of  commerce,  till  Alexander  de- 
stroyed it,  about  332  years  before  Christ; 
and  it  was  stili  the  Phoenicians,  who,  by 
Carthage,  commanded  a^ul  enlarged  the 
sphere  of  commerce,  till  its  final  destruc- 
tion by  the  Romans.  During  the  declen- 
sion of  these  maritime   cities,  several  of 


<lo?  20.  What  of  Alexander!'  21    Ptolemy?  22 


the  Grecian  states  increased  in  their  at- 
tentions to  the  sea  ;  but  it  was  more  as  a 
theatre  for  warlike  dominion,  than  for  the 
peaceful  purposes  of  commerce.  Athena 
held  this  power  long ;  and,  after  her,  Spar- 
ta :  in  both  cases,  their  tyranny  provoked 
resistance,  and  entailed  ruin. 

20.  The  next  grand  movement  which 
gave  a  new  turn  to  commerce,  arose  from 
the  wise  foresight  of  Alexander ;  whose 
aim  seems  to  have  been  not  more  to  con- 
quer by  land  than  by  sea.  Wherever  he 
gained  a  footing,  he  made  provisions  for 
trade.  He  also  planned  voyages  of  dis- 
covery ;  and  with  the  view  of  giving  a 
centre  to  commerce,  easy  of  access  to 
the  whole  known  world,  he  built  the  city, 
called,  after  himself,  Alexandria  ;  having 
connexion  with  the  west  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  with  the  richer  provinces  of 
the  East  by  the  Red  Sea,  wliile  caravans 
from  the  central  countries  of  Asia  could 
reach  it  by  the  isthmus  of  Suez. 

21.  Ptolemy,  one  of  Alexander's  gen- 
erals, obtained  Egypt  as  his  share  of  the 
conqueror's  spoils.  He  with  eager  assi- 
duity carried  into  eflfect  his  master's  plans 
for  commerce,  and  drew  great  numbers  to 
settle  in  Alexandria.  He  built  another 
city,  called  Berenice,  far  towards  the 
south,  on  the  Red  Sea ;  at  which  all  the 
precious  commodities  of  the  East  obtained 
in  Arabia  were  landed.  He  formed  a  road 
from  thence  to  the  Nile,  down  which  river, 
all  was  brought  to  Alexandria.  He  kept 
also  large  fleets,  both  in  the  Red  Sea,  and 
in  the  Mediterranean,  which  gave  his  sub- 
jects a  great  superiority  over  the  decaying 
citizens  of  Tyre.  His  revenues  produced 
by  this  wise  policy  were  not  only  im- 
mense, ■  but  peacefully  gained  ;  and  they 
promoted  happiness  on  all  hands. 

22.  We  may  mention  the  Sabseans  in 
the  south  of  Arabia,  with  whom  the  carry- 


VVhat  of  the  Sabajaiis  >    23.  The  destruction  of 


HISTORY    OF    COMMERCE. 


149 


mg-trade  between  India  and  Egypt  seems 
to  have  flourished  for  ages ;  for  only  with 
them  did  the  Egyptians  trade,  even  under 
the  Ptolemies.  They  were  settled  in  a 
happy  land,  fertile,  and  well-stored  with 
cattle,  abundant  in  fragrant  gums,  myrrh, 
frankincense,  &c.  Their  ships  went  to 
India  and  the  island  ;  and  their  caravans 
to  Syria  and  the  ports  of  the  Phoenicians ; 
while  their  country,  by  its  situation  out  of 
the  reach  of  hostile  armies,  enjoyed  con- 
tinual peace. 

23.  We  have  noticed  the  pitiable  fall  of 
Carthage  under  the  unrelenting  Romans, 
about  one  hundred  and  forty-six  years  be- 
fore Christ.  The  Romans  were  ignorant 
©f  the  value  and  merits  of  commerce  ;  and, 
as  if  they  were  determined  to  root  it  out, 
ihey,  about  the  same  period,  destroyed 
Corinth  the  wealthy,  which  had  been  one 
of  the  most  commercial  cities  of  Greece. 
It  was  the  very  centre  of  Grecian  art ;  and 
the  statues  and  pictures  carried  thence  to 
Rome  gave  that  barbarian  people  their 
first  notions  of  refinement.  The  total 
stagnation  given  to  commerce,  produced 
by  the  ruin  of  those  two  states,  was  felt 
all  around  ;  the  labors  of  the  industrious 
and  the  ingenious  were  useless,  for  there 
was  no  market  for  their  productions ;  and 
the  mariners,  deprived  of  their  legitimate 
employment,  became  pirates.  They  soon 
were  masters  of  the  sea;  and  the  Romans 
were  obliged  to  fit  out  great  armaments, 
under  Pompey,  who,  attacking  them  at 
once  in  their  different  stations,  reduced 
them  with  great  slaughter. 

24.  The  adorning  of  Rome  with  stat- 
ues and  pictures,  the  visits  of  its  generals 
to  scenes  of  Asiatic  splendor,  with  the 
wealthy  and  curious  spoils  they  brought 
home,  had  the  effect  of  rendering  the 
liardy  Romans  luxurious.     Another  effect 


Corinth?  24.  What  tended  to  render  the  Ro- 
mans luxurious?  25.  What  of  Julius  Caesar? 
2C.  The  Roman  dominion  ?  27.  What  articles  of 


of  the  wealth  obtained,  and  the  influence 
gained  thereby,  was  to  put  away,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  desire  to  have  their  country 
rule  over  all  nations,  and  to  rouse  in  their 
generals  a  wish  to  rule  over  their  country. 

25.  The  first  who  succeeded  completely 
in  this  endeavor  was  Julius  Csesar.  As 
a  conqueror,  he  has  had  his  full  share  of 
fame ;  his  influence  oh  commerce  may  be 
noticed,  as  he,  in  one  year,  restored  both 
the  ruined  cities  of  Corinth  and  Canhage, 
which  in  time  regained  considerable  im 
portance. 

26.  The  Roman  emperors  soon  reduc- 
ed Egypt  to  the  state  of  a  mere  province 
of  the  empire ;  and,  now  that  the  whole 
world  around  the  Mediterranean,  and  fat 
into  Asia,  was  under  their  dominion,  they, 
for  their  own  sake,  began  to  favor  com- 
merce. Corn  was  the  grand  object  of  their 
solicitude,  that  their  metropolis  might  be  in 
no  danger  of  starving. 

27.  Italy  itself  produced  great  supplies  ; 
Cisalpine  Gaul  sent  them  pork  salted ; 
tapestry  and  woollen  goods  came  from 
Padua,  and  marble  was  fetched  from  the 
Alps,  for  their  sumptuous  buildings.  Ice, 
to  cool  their  liquors,  became  almost  a 
necessary  of  life.  Liguria  sent  them  large 
timbers,  hides,  and  honey.  Pisa  furnished 
them  with  huge  blocks  of  marble,  cheeses 
of  vast  size,  and  wines  of  exquisite  flavor. 
The  islands  supplied  them  with  timber  ; 
and  Sicily  sent  immense  stores  of  corn. 
Melita  sent  fine  clothing ;  Greece  furnish- 
ed them  with  honey,  the  purple  dye,  and 
a  fine  stuff  called  Byssinus.  Paros  had 
marble  for  statues ;  Samos,  fine  earthen- 
ware ;  Lemnos,  vermilion ;  and  Cos,  an 
extremely  transparent  drapery. 

28.  Thrace  sent  them  corn,  and  the 
salted  tunny-fish  ;  and  from  Colchis  they 
received  fine  wool,  and  linen  of  Egyptian 


luxury  did  they  receive  from  the  different  coun- 
tries under  their  sway  ?  28.  What  was  sent  them 
from  Thrace  ?    Asia  Mmor  ?    Tyre  and  Sidon  ? 


150 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


fabric.  East  India  commodities  came 
overland  to  Phocis,  on  the  Euxine  Sea, 
from  whence  they  were  shipped  to  Rome. 
From  the  southern  provinces  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor came  curious  marble,  wine,  wool, 
vermilion,  and  cheese.  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
once  so  famous,  now  only  furnished  glass, 
which  had  been  there  invented.  Egypt 
wias  long  called  the  granary  of  the  world, 
and  Rome  almost  depended  on  a  regular 
supply  of  corn  from  thence.  Its  famous 
linens  and  flax  were  in  high  request,  as 
were  its  cotton  goods,  perfumed  ointments, 
gums,  and  papyrus.  Also,  large  quantities 
of  Indian  goods  came  through  Alexandria, 
which  was  carefully  fostered,  and  grew 
rapidly  in  importance  and  in  splendor. 
Africa  Proper,  that  is,  the  Roman  province 
on  the  northern  coast,  supplied  them  with 
corn,  drugs,  and  ostrich  feathers ;  as  also 
with  elephants,  lions,  and  other  wild  beasts, 
for  their  savage  spectacles. 

29.  From  Mauritania  came  a  wood  of 
great  price,  somewhat  like  our  mahogany. 
Their  provinces  in  Spain,  especially  the 
southern,  were  like  on©  gay  garden,  adorn- 
ed with  elegant  buildings.  The  mines  of 
gold  beneath  the  soil,  and  the  excellent 
productions  above,  supplied  the  imperial 
city  with  many  of  its  choicest  luxuries. 
Gadir,  Gades,  or  Cadiz,  was  a  grand  store- 
house to  the  west,  almost  rivalling  Alex- 
andria in  the  East ;  while  the  vast  pro- 
vinces of  Gaul,  furnished  by  inland  navi- 
gation to  the  ports  of  Narbo  and  Massilia, 
(now  Marseilles,)  on  the  south,  and  Burdi- 
gala,  (now  Bourdeaux,)  on  the  west,  great 
quantities  of  provisions,  metals,  linens,  and 
plaid  garments,  besides  an  extensive  vari- 
ety of  minor  articles. 

30.  This  influx  of  every  article  to  Rome 
csui  hardly  be  called  cominerce,  as  the  Ro- 
mans exported  nothing  in  return,  except 
money;  the   gold   and  silver  which   they 

Egypt  ?    29.  What  came  from  Mauritania  ?   30.    commerce  much  cultivated  by  the  Romans .-'   32 
What  did  the  Romans  export  in  return  .^  31.  Was  IWhen,  and  by  whom,  was  the  seat  of  govern 


had  exacted  as  tribute,  or  obtained  by 
plunder,  were  thus  returned  to  the  various 
provinces.  Indeed,  with  the  Romans,  the 
character  of  a  merchant  was  in  no  esteem  ; 
they  left  it  to  their  enslaved  subjects,  think- 
ing nothing  honorable  but  the  sword. 

31.  In  this  manner  did  all  the  provinces 
pour  into  Rome  their  choicest  productions ; 
ruining,  by  the  luxuries  tliey  afforded,  that 
domineering  power  which  had  ruined  them 
by  the  sword.  A  few  particulars  may  be 
remarked,  before  we  come  to  any  change, 
which  can  deserve  to  be  noted  in  this 
sketch  of  the  history  of  commerce.  Com- 
merce was  never  cultivated  by  the  Ro- 
mans; it  lived  by  its  own  energies,  in 
spite  of  them ;  they  only,  for  their  own 
advantage,  seized  on  the  precious  fruits 
obtained  by  it,  and  brought  within  their 
reach. 

32.  The  next  great  change  was  in  the 
empire  itself,  which  wsank  under  its  own 
weight.  The  removal  of  the  seat  of  go- 
vernment from  Rome  to  Byzantium,  by 
Constantino,  in  A.  D.  328,  however  favor- 
able or  necessary  to  keep  up  the  dominion 
of  the  eastern  provinces,  was  fatal  to  the 
security  of  the  western  parts.  It  issued  in 
there  being  often  two  or  more  emperors ; 
and  at  last,  in  weakening  these  parts,  dis- 
tant from  the  head-quarters  so  much,  that 
the  tribes  from  the  northern  nations,  gen- 
erally called  Goths,  by  frequent  and  in- 
cessant irruptions,  at  last  prevailed.  Odo 
acer  removed  Augustulus,  the  last  who 
bore  the  title  of  emperor  in  Italy.  Soon 
after,  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
defeated  Odoacer,  and  became  king  of 
Italy.  He  was  a  wise  and  excellent 
prince,  under  whom  peace  and  plenty 
again  spread  over  the  desolated  plains  of 
Italy,  and  arts  and  commerce  began  again 
to  rear  their  smiling  heads. 

33.  Africa  had  been  rent  from  the  Ro- 


HISTORT    OF    COMMERCE. 


151 


man  power,  by  the  Vandal  king,  Genseric, 
who  became  master  of  the  sea ;  and  from 
Carthage  issued  forth  with  his  barbarian 
hordes,  sacked  Rome  itself  for  fourteen 
days,  and  carried  off  to  his  own  city  the 
spoils  of  all  the  earth,  which  had  for  ages 
been  accumulating  at  Rome.  Spain  was 
almost  occupied  by  two  Gothic  tribes. 
Gaul  was  overrun  by  the  Franks,  a  Ger- 
man nation  ;  and  Britain  had  been  treach- 
erously gained  by  the  Saxons. 

34.  The  Eastern  empire  itself  soon  be- 
gan to  decay,  although  it  continued  a  wax- 
ing and  waning  existence  for  some  centu- 
ries. Commerce  still  flowed  through  some 
of  its  old  channels  in  Asia  and  Egypt  to 
Constantinople,  but  in  a  very  reduced 
state. 

35.  Commerce,  which  had  risen  to  a 
broad  and  deep  river,  under  the  Phoeni- 
cians and  their  descendants  at  Carthage, 
had  become  stagnant  under  the  military 
oppression  of  the  Roman  republic ;  it  had 
flowed  in  a  gentle  stream  at  the  command 
of  imperial  luxury ;  then  it  was,  by  the 
Gothic  irruptions,  dispersed  and  lost  as 
the  Rhine  vanishes  in  the  sands.  We 
may  now  begin  to  trace  its  reappearance  ; 
small  indeed  at  first,  but  gradually  rising, 
spreading,  and  fertilizing  every  land  on 
which  it  touched. 

36.  Before,  however,  we  trace  its  rise 
in  these  western  parts,  let  us  give  another 
glance  at  it,  in  the  decaying  empire  of  the 
East.  The  commerce  of  the  Egyptians 
with  India  was  totally  failing,  the  Indians 
themselves  becoming  the  chief  merchants. 

'  These,  in  their  voyage  from  India,  usually 
called  in  their  way  at  the  Persian  ports  ; 
where  frequently  they  sold  the  whole  of 
their  cargoes.  This  brought  on  a  de- 
ficiency of  trade  to  the  Red  Sea,  or 
rather  to  the  king  of  Abyssinia's  domin- 


ment  removed  ?  33.  What  of  Africa  ?  34.  The 
eastern  empire?  35.  Commerce  under  the  Ro- 
mans ?    36.  The  commerce  of  the  Egyptians .' 


ions,  through  which  the  Romans  had 
been  accustomed  to  obtain  Indian  com- 
modities ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  threw 
into  the  hands  of  the  Persians  this  im- 
portant and  enriching  commerce.  The 
Persians  knew  well  how  to  make  their 
advantage  of  this  monopoly.  That  luxury 
which  was  fast  bringing  the  Roman  em- 
pire to  ruin,  was  insatiable  in  its  demands. 
Silk  was  one  grand  article  of  display ; 
and  the  price  it  bore  in  coming  through 
the  hands  of  the  Persians,  caused  great 
distress  and  puerile  lamentations  at  Con- 
stantinople. 

37  It  was  at  this  time  that  a  couple 
j  of  monks,  who  had  travelled  to  China, 
!  and  staid  there  long  enough  to  learn  the 
I  whole  business  of  managing  the  silk- 
worms, brought  to  Constantinople  a  num- 
ber of  the  eggs  of  these  valuable  insects, 
concealed  in  the  hollow  of  their  canes ; 
and  thereby  stocked  the  West  with  a  ma- 
terial, now  of  incalculable  value,  both  to 
the  rich  who  wear,  and  to  the  poor  who 
manufacture  it. 

CHAP.  XL. 

1.  In  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century, 
the  Turkish  power  began  to  rise,  and  in- 
terrupted the  caravans  which  were  accus- 
tomed to  pass  between  China  and  Persia: 
thus,  in  the  issue,  producing  a  trade  from 
China  to  Constantinople,  passing  north  of 
the  Caspian  Sea. 

2.  In  A.  D.  616,  Chosroes,  king  of 
Persia,  took  Alexandria  from  the  Eastern 
Empire.  As  Constantinople  hafl^J^een  fed 
from  Egypt,  this  event  tended  to  starve 
the  imperial  city,  and  the  distress  it  occa- 
sioned roused  the  emperor  Heraclius  to 
something  like  old  Roman  vigor  ;  he  de- 
feated Chosroes  in  621,  and  recovered 
Alexandria.     The    Persians,   during  their 

37.  The   introduction  of  the    culture    of  silk  ? 

1.  When  did  the  Turkish  power  begin  to  rise  ? 

2.    What  was  the  consequence  of  the  capture 


152 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


victories,  had  discovered  that  the  Euphra- 
tes would  form  a  more  conveniem  medi- 
um of  traffic  to  India  ;  and  they  therefore 
built  Bassora,  which  soon  rose  to  great 
opulence. 

3.  The  impostor  Mohammed,  with  his  fu- 
rious Arabs,  since  called  Saracens,  or  horse- 
men,  began  to  spread  desolation  through  the 
Eastern  Empire,  and  to  diminish  its  do- 
mains, by  seizing  province  after  province. 
Mohammed's  successors  carried  on  a  war 
of  extermination ;  impelled  by  religious 
zeal,  and  allured  by  the  rich  spoils  and 
the  feeble  resistance  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire. They  took  Alexandria,  and  turned 
its  vast  supplies  towards  their  own  coun- 
try of  Medina.  Their  armies  conquered 
from  almost  the  borders  of  China,  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  ;  of  course,  all  the  trade 
of  the  world  fell  into  their  power.  Cy- 
prus, Rhodes,  and  many  Grecian  islands, 
submitted  to  their  fury,  and  Carthage  they 
utterly  destroyed  in  698.  In  713  they 
established  themselves  in  Spain. 

4.  The  hatred  between  the  Christians 
and  these  followers  of  Mohammed  was  so 
bitter,  that  it  was  thought  to  be .  heretical 
even  to  trade  to  Alexandria.  But  the  Sa- 
racens, having  so  vast  an  extent  of  empire, 
and  being  undisputed  masters  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, carried  on  a  very  considerable 
traffic  among  their  own  connected  pro- 
vinces. 

5.  Constantinople,  it  has  been  stated, 
carried  on  an  inland  caravan  traffic  even 
with  China,  distant  as  it  was ;  and  im- 
menseljj^ear  must  have  been  the  silk  thus 
obtained. 

6.  The  first  European  power  which 
rose  to  eminence  in  commerce  was  Venice. 
We  must  go  back  to  state  the  rise  of  this 
important  city.  In  452,  when  Attila  and 
his  Huns  descended  like   a  torrent  over 


I  the  northern  plains  of  Italy,  the  distressed 
inhabitants  fled  every  way  for  their  lives. 
The  Veneti,  a  people  of  one  of  those  pro- 
vinces, fled  to  a  cluster  of  muddy  islands, 
about  five  miles  distant,  in  the  Adriatic. 
The  water  between  them  and  the  conti- 
nent they  had  left,  was  too  deep  to  be 
forded,  and  too  shallow  for  ships  to  reach 
them.  Here  they  raised  such  huts  of  mud 
and  weeds  as  they  were  able  ;  they  betook 

j  themselves  to  fishing  for  their  subsistence  , 
and   to  their  ])overty  they  owed  the  tran- 
quillity and  safety  they  enjoyed.     The  con 
tinned  wars  in  Italy  drove  great  numbers 
to  take  refuge  in  the  same  shelter. 

7.  In  less  than  a  century,  that  is,  in 
523,  we  find  them  formed  into  a  state, 
with  a  regular  government,  and  their  tiny 
fishing-boats  enlarged  to  mercantile  crafts, 
which  enabled  them  to  carry  goods  up  the 
several  rivers"  around,  when  a  season  of 
peace  would  allow  them  to  do  so  with 
safety.  A  writer  of  that  day  compares 
their  city  to  a  collection  of  nests  of  water- 
fowls. The  distinction  of  rich  and  poor 
was  not  known  ;  for  all  lived  on  the  same 
fish-diet,  and  in  houses  alike  poor;  and 
they  tied  their  boats  to  their  walls,  as 
landsmen  would  tie  up  their  cattle. 

8.  In  732,  we  find  the  Venetians  ven 
turing  in  ships  beyond  the  Adriatic,  into 
the  Slediterranean,  and  even  as  far  as 
Constantinople.  As  they  had  no  land,  all 
their  energies  were  directed  to  the  sea. 
As  those  who  had  settled  among  them  had 
fled  for  liberty  from  their  native  soil,  they 
were  a  people  of  spirit,  activity,  and  en 
terprise  ;  of  course,  they  soon  became 
wealthy  and  powerful.  From  Constanti- 
nople they  brought  cargoes  of  silks,  pur- 
ple draperies  from  Tyre,  spices,  and  all 
the  luxuries  of  the  East.  These  were 
highly  acceptable  to  the  rising  states  of 


of  Alexandria  ?  3.  What  of  Mohammed  and  his 
Arabs?  4.  The  hostility  between  the  Christians 
and  this  Beet  ?    5.  The  traffic  of  Constantinople 


with  China?  6.  What  European  power  first  rose 
to  eminence  in  commerce.  7.  In  523,  to  whal 
had  they  risen .?  8.  In  732,  whither  did  they  ven- 


HISTORY    OF    COMMERCE. 


153 


Italy,  and  to  all  the  European  powers,  as 
far  as  they  could  find  means  to  transport 
them   to  the  northern  and  western  parts. 

9.  In  813,  some  of  the  subjects  of  Char- 
lemagne joined,  to  send  ships  to  Alexan- 
dria ;  being  the  first  Christians  who  ven- 
tured thither,  after  the  Saracens  had  taken 
it.  The  Indian  varieties  tliey  procured, 
were  sent  by  the  great  rivers,  into  the 
heart  of  Germany,  and  all  around. 

10.  For  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
the  Saracens  had  pushed  their  conquests 
every  way  ;  and  they  now  began  to  settle. 
The  Cahph  Almanzor,  in  762,  built  Bag- 
dad, as  the  seat  of  his  empire,  and  called 
it  the  city  of  peace.  As  soon  as  these  ma- 
rauders had  sheathed  the  sword,  their 
active  and  intelligent  minds  made  excur- 
sion^ into  science  and  arts ;  by  which 
some  of  the  most  important  parts  of  our 
present  knowledge  were  ascertained.  They 
invented  the  arithmetical  figures  now  in 
use  ;  produced  the  alembic,  for  distillation  ; 
discovered  the  nature  of  acids  and  alka- 
lies, and  laid  the  ground-work  for  many 
of  the  sciences  of  the  present  age. 

11.  Their  occupation  of  Spain  was 
splendid.  At  a  time  that  gross  darkness 
obscured  the  faculties  of  the  other  parts 
of  Europe,  literature,  science,  and  refine- 
ment, flourished  in  the  Moorish  cities 
of  Spain.  So  that  the  European  youth 
who  were  desirous  of  obtaining  knowledge, 
went  to  their  schools,  and  flourishing  uni- 
versities, to  study.  To  their  hardihood  in 
thus  venturing  among  Mussulmen,  Europe 
owes  the  faint  dawnings  of  science  when 
it  first  began  to  rise. 

12.  The  conduct  of  France,  in  813,  was 
imitated  by  Venice  in  828  ;  ten  ships  being 
sent  to  Alexandria,  to  trade,  in  spite  of  all 
laws  to  the  contrary.      In  1084,  we  find 


ture  ?  9.  What  of  the  subjects  of  Charlemagne  ? 
10.  When  was  Bagdad  built  ?  What  was  it  call- 
ed ^  What  did  the  Saracens  invent?  11.  Did 
science  flourish  in  the  Moorish  cities  of  Spam  ? 


the  Venetians  so  powerfbl  in  shipping, 
that  their  assistance  was  earnestly  request- 
ed by  the  Grecian  emperor. 

13.  In  969,  we  find  the  inhabitants  of 
Amalfi,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  rival- 
ling Venice,  and  obtaining  great  wealth, 
by  trading  all  about  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  even  to  Constantinople.  They  after- 
wards obtained  favor  with  the  Saracen 
rulers  ;  and,  in  1020,  had  leave  to  build 
houses  in  the  cjty  of  Jerusalem. 

14.  The  notices  of  any  thing  like  com- 
merce in  these  ages,  especially  in  Europe, 
are  extremely  scanty.  V^e  may  suppose, 
that  when  any  lucrative  trafiic  was  begun, 
its  own  importance  gave  it  continuance  ; 
and  this  is  indeed  demonstrated  ;  for,  after 
awhile,  we  find  it  there  still ;  and  especial- 
ly if  it  becomes  much  improved. 

15.  We  may  notice,  because  it  is  the 
beginning  of  an  immense  trade,  that  in 
960  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloths  in 
Flanders  seems  to  have  been  establish- 
ed. And  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flanders,  with 
great  wisdom,  set  up  weekly  fairs  in 
several  of  his  cities,  and  exempted  from 
duty  all  goods  brought  to  them.  The  con- 
venience of  fairs  obtained  their  establish- 
ment in  many  of  the  German  cities. 

16.  We  may  also  notice,  because  of  its 
importance  to  commerce,  that,  in  970,  Ger- 
bert,  overcoming  every  prejudice,  went 
from  France  to  the  Moorish  city  of  Seville, 
to  study  science  at  its  purest  source.  From 
thence  he  brought  the  Arabic  figures  now 
in  use,  with  the  system  and  rules  of  arith- 
metic, at  that  time  unknown  in  the  Chris- 
tian part  of  Europe.  He  became  after- 
wards Pope,  under  the  title  of  Sylvester  II. 

17.  The  Venetian  republic  continued 
to  rise  in  power.  In  993,  they  extirpated 
a  nest  of  pirates  on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia ; 


12.  What  of  the  Venetians  in  1084.?  13.  The  in 
habitants  of  Amalfi. in  969  and  1020 .?  14,  What 
of  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth  in  Flan 
ders?  16.  WhatofGerbert.?    17.  Did  the  Vene- 


154 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


and,  seizing  the   country,   obtained    some 
considerable  extent  of  territory. 

18.  In  1063,  Pisa  flourished  as  a  com- 
mercial republic,  trading  even  with  tlie 
Saracens  of  Sicily.  The  people  of  Genoa 
were  also  trading  largely  in  the  Levant,  or 
eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

19.  In  1066,  William  the  Norman,  by 
the  accidental  death  of  Harold  in  battle, 
obtained  possession  of  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land. Whatever  belongs  to  the  history  of 
English  commerce  will  be  more  readily 
obtained  from  this  period.  During  the 
Saxon  reigns,  war,  and  resistance  to  the 
Danes,  was  almost  the  sole  occupation 
of  the  English.  Agriculture  had  fallen 
greatly  into  disuse ;  many  large  territo- 
ries, which  in  the  Roman  times  had  been 
cultivated,  had  become  mere  forests,  or 
were  overgrown  with  thick  woods,  har- 
boring wild  beasts  and  robbers,  some  even 
close  to  London.  If  little  beyond  neces- 
sary sustenance  was  raised,  there  could 
not  be  much  to  send  to  foreign  countries. 

20.  That  the  people  sold  their  own  chil- 
dren, is  known,  by  their  being  found  and 
admired  in  the  slave  market  at  Rome ; 
which  was  the  occasion  of  Gregory's 
sending  Augustine  the  monk  to  convert 
the  Saxons,  who  were  then  all  pagan  idol- 
aters. That  fact  alone  will  go  far  to  prove 
their  poverty,  and  that  they  had  nothing 
else  to  sell.  Yet  the  art  of  jewellery  was 
so  well  practised,  as  to  makeJEnglish  or- 
naments to  be  in  high  esteem,  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Alfred.  And  the  work 
of  small  embroiderers  in  various  colored 
silks,  with  gold  and  silver  threads,  was 
known  abroad  as  English  produce. 

21.  Great  quantities  of  shipping  were 
needed  by  William,  to  bring  over  his  Nor- 
man army  :  it  is  most  likely,  that  when  he 


tian  power  continue  to  rise  ?  18.  What  of  Pisa  :• 
19.  When  did  William  the  Norman  obtain  pos- 
session of  the  English  crown  ?  20.  What  of  their 
Belhng  their  children.^    21.  What  was  needed  by 


was  settled  upon  the  English  throne,  much 
commercial  intercourse  took  place  between 
his  Norman  and  Anglican  domains.  Yet 
it  appears  that  most  of  the  sea-ports  had 
gone  into  decay. 

22.  The  next  principal  spur  to  com- 
merce arose  out  of  the  Crusades,  or  Holy 
Wars,  as  they  were  called,  which  began 
thus :  From  the  time  that  the  Saracens 
obtained  possession  of  Palestine,  Jerusa 
lem,  and  all  the  places  rendered  famous  in 
Scripture  story,  were  almost  shut  up  from 
the  Christians.  Much  of  the  religion  of 
that  period  consisted  in  a  superstitious 
veneration  for  holy  places  ;  and  when  this 
difficulty  came  in  the  way,  and  Moham- 
medans ruled  in  that  part  of  the  country, 
the  desire  of  going  a  pilgrimage  to  visit 
those  places,  and  to  kiss  the  relics  there, 
became  very  strong.  Much  honor  re- 
dounded to  such  as  had  been  there  ;  their 
devoutness  was  taken  for  granted  ;  and 
much  merit  attached  to  the  successful  pil- 
grims. J 

23.  The   merchants  of  Amalfi  had  ob-       { 
tained  leave  from  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  to 
build    houses   for  their    countrymen,  and 
their    religion,    in    Jerusalem    itself;    but       ' 
still  Christians,  as  such,  were  so  despised 
and  hated  by  the  Mussulmans,  that  it  was       • 
thought  no  crime,  but  rather  meritorious,       [\ 
to  insult,  rob,  and  murder  them,  in   their 
journey    from   the   sea-porte    where    they 
landed,  to  the  Holy  City.     An  Order  of 
Knights  had  been  instituted  on  purpose  for 
their  protection  ;  yet  their  sufferings  were 
desperate,  notwithstanding  their  aid. 

24.  In  1095,  Peter  the  Hermit,  as  he 
was  called,  having  been  on  this  pilgrimage, 
and  witnessed  their  sufferings,  obtained 
leave  from  the  Pope  to  preach  up,  through 
Europe,  a  holy  war,  the   object  of  which 


William  to  bring  over  his  Norman  army  ?  22. 
What  other  spur  to  commerce  was  there .''  23. 
What  of  the  hatred  of  the  Mussulmans  towards 
the  Christians  ?     24.  What  was  done  bv  Peter 


HISTORY    OF    COMMERCE. 


155 


was,  to  rescue  these  sacred  places  from  the 
hands  of  the  infidels.  Every  soldier  engag- 
ing in  this  service,  had,  as  an  ornament,  a 
red  cross  upon  the  shoulder  of  his  gar- 
ment. The  enterprise  was  said  to  be  the 
war  for  the  Cross ;  or,  in  a  shorter  term,  a 
Croisade,  or  Crusade. 

25.  The  Pope  saw  his  advantage  in  it ; 
*s  it  tended  to  estabhsh  his  authority  in  the 
East,  where  he  had  never  been  able  to  rule. 
He  found  it  also  hkely  to  fill  his  coffers, 
as  all  who  engaged  in  the  crusade  wanted 
pardons  for  all  the  sins  they  had  commit- 
ted before  they  went,  indulgences  for  all 
they  might  feel  inclined  to  commit  in  their 
sanguinary  undertaking,  and  passports  to 
Heaven  for  every  one  who  should  fall  in 
the  contest.  All  these  things  had  their 
price,  and  brought  him  in  vast  wealth. 
The  darkness  of  those  ages,  which  had 
obscured  the  true  nature  of  religion,  and 
introduced  superstitious  works  of  merit  in 
its  stead,  made  every  one,  rich  and  poor, 
want  to  go,  when  the  danger  was  no  great- 
er than  in  any  other  war,  and  the  rich  re- 
ward was  Heaven  itself  Add  to  this,  as 
at  that  time  there  was  in  Europe  but  little 
commerce,  and  no  manufactures,  except 
in  a  few  places,  to  employ  the  bulk  of  the 
population,  the  mass  of  the  people,  idle, 
and  in  want  of  employment,  was  turbu- 
lent, and  ready  for  any  mischief. 

26.  Most  of  the  princes  of  Europe, 
therefore,  were  glad,  by  this  means,  to 
send  out  of  their  dominions  multitudes  of 
restless  spirits,  whom  they  with  difficulty 
ke})t  within  bounds  at  home. 

27.  These  hints  may  suffice  to  show 
how  so  strange  a  scheme  as  carrying  all 
Europe  eastwards,  to  war  upon  the  Sara- 
cens, could  ever  obtain  hold  on  the  public 
mind,  as  it  did  for  nearly  two  centuries. 

28.  This  movement  affected  commerce 


the  Hermit  ?  What  was  the  enterprise  called  i 
25.  Was  it  favorably  received  by  the  Pope  ?  26 
Why  were  the  princes  of  Europe  pleased  with 


in  many  ways.  It  brought  vast  wealth 
to  the  few  commercial  cities  existing,  who 
alone  had  shipping  sufficient  to  transpor^ 
such  immense  armies  to  so  great  a  distance, 
and  supply  them  with  subsistence  when 
there.  It  was  exactly  the  land  of  Indian 
and  Asiatic  luxuries  and  curiosities,  and 
they  came  back  laden  with  treasures,  for 
which  they  found  a  ready  market  among 
the  wealthy,  all  over  Europe.  Such  of  the 
Crusaders  as  returned,  had  seen  a  style  of 
elegant  accommodation  among  the  Saracens, 
and  the  citizens  of  Constantinople,  such  as 
Europe  had  never  known  ;  but  such  as,  for 
splendour  and  convenience,  needed  only  to 
be  seen  to  be  desired. 
,  29.  A  taste  for  things  never  before  pos- 
sessed, was  thus  generated  ;  commerce 
was  employed  to  fetch  them,  with  the  cer- 
tainty of  a  ready  market ;  and  many  man- 
ufactures in  imitation,  were  set  up  in  dif- 
ferent cities.  From  this  period,  therefore, 
commerce  took  a  spirited  start,  and  aimed 
at  a  wider  range ;  mere  necessaries  no 
longer  bounded  men's  wishes,  but  con- 
veniences, elegances,  and  novelties,  were 
every  where  sought  after  ;  and  this  desire 
is  the  moving  spring  of  commerce. 

30.  Another  important  change  in  favor 
of  commerce  was  occasioned  by  the  Cru- 
sades ;  hitherto  all  towns  were  under  some 
lord,  whose  tyrannical  sway  and  galling 
extortions  crushed  the  energies  of  the 
human  mind,  which  never  can  act  freely, 
except  when  it  can  ensure  to  itself  the 
benefit  of  its  exertions.  Now,  at  this  time, 
the  eagerness  of  the  feudal  lords  to  distin- 
guish themselves  was  cramped  in  most 
cases  by  their  poverty. 

31.  They  therefore  sold  to  the  citizens 
of  their  towns  this  right  of  domination 
and  spoUation,  for  sums  of  immediate  use 
to  fit  them    out  for  their  voyage.     Cities 


the  enterprise  ?    27.  What  do  these  hints  show  f 
28.    Did  this  movement  affect  commerce  ?    29 
What  were  its  consequences  ?    30.  What  other 
K2 


156 


BOOK  OF    COMMERCE. 


and  tutjzens  began,  therefore,  to  rise  from 
their  abject  condition.  The  wealth  they 
now  could  procure  was  their  own,  and  be- 
came not  only  the  means,  but  a  stimulus,  to 
greater  exertions. 

32.  It  may  be  added,  that  some  of  the 
great  commercial  cities,  Pisa,  and  espe- 
cially Venice,  obtained  from  the  Crusaders, 
during  the  time  of  their  success  in  Pales- 
tine, streets  in  some  cities,  and  even  whole 
towns  as  colonies,  as  rewards  for  the  assist- 
ance rendered  by  their  shipping. 

33.  Pisa  and  Genoa  contended  for  the 
sovereignty  of  the  seas,  and  for  the  pos- 
session of  the  islands,  by  interminable 
wars.  Genoa  obtained  by  force,  or  pur- 
chase, much  territory  from,  the  nobles,  in 
the  countries  around  their  city. 

CHAP.  XLI. 

1.  In  1189,  during  the  long  reign  of 
Henry  II.,  of  England,  weaving  was  car- 
ried on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Eng- 
land. The  English  goldworkers,  and 
female  embroiderers,  kept  up  their  repu- 
tation all  over  Europe. 

2.  The  nature  of  the  caravan  trade  in 
Asia  may  be  seen  by  the  account  of  one, 
taken  by  Richard  I.,  when  on  his  cru- 
sade. It  was  coming  from  Babylon  to 
Palestine  ;  both  Saracen  countries.  Four 
thousand  seven  hundred  camels,  and  an 
innumerable  herd  of  mules  and  asses, 
were  taken  ;  and  many  others  effected 
their  escape ;  so  that  it  was  said,  never 
was  so  much  booty  captured  in  one  battle. 
It  consisted  of  silk  robes,  cloaks,  purple 
dye,  and  many  personal  ornaments  ;  with 
money,  and  gold  and  silver  in  ingots,  and 
candlesticks ;  coats  of  mail,  arms,  and 
weapons  of  all  soats  ;  richly  embroidered 


change  was  effected  ?  31.  What  did  the  feudal 
lords  do  ?  32.  How  were  Pisa  and  Venice  bene- 
fited ?  33.  What  cities  contended  for  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  sea  ? 

1.  What  bran<:h  of  manufactures  flourished  in 


cushions,  tents,  and  pavilions ;  with  purses, 
medicines,  wax,  sugar,  and  spices. 

3.  As  the  discovery  of  the  polarity  of 
the  loadstone  has  given  new  wings  te 
commerce,  by  which  she  is  enabled  to 
fly  across  wide  and  trackless  oceans,  it  is 
right  to  notice,  that  about  the  year  1200,  it 
was  first  applied  to  navigation.  The  mode 
of  discovering  land,   when  out    of  sight. 


used  to  be  by  birds  carried  on  board  for 
this  purpose.  Crows  were  then  found 
very  useful.  If  the  bird  returned  to  the 
ship,  they  were  certain  no  land  was  near 
but  if  the  sailors  saw  it  dart  off,  they  fol- 
lowed in  the  same  direction,  and  were  sure 
of  land. 

4.  But  when  the  use  of  the  magnetic 
needle  was  discovered,  the  mode  of  using 
it  was,  to  let  the  needle  float  on  a  piece  of 
straw,  in  a  basin  of  water ;  they  then  set 
up  a  candle,  so  that  this  needle  should 
point  towards  it ;  and  esteeming  that  part 
the  north,  they  steered  accordingly.  At. 
the  present  day,  this  needle,  kept  in  a  box, 
is  fastened  to  a  card,  which,  being  nicely 
balanced  on  a  point,  turns  with  great  ease, 
by  the  mere  power  of  the  magnet ;  and 
shows  the  north,  and  all  the  other  points 
of  the  compass,  either  by  day  or  night. 


England  during  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  ?  2.  What 
of  the  caravan  trade  in  Asia  ?  3.  What  was  the 
earliest  mode  of  discovering  land,  when  out  of 
sight  ?  4.  What  was  the  mode  of  using  the  ma 
netic  needle?    5.  By  whom  was  it  invente* 


HISTORr    OK     Cf>MI\IERCE. 


157 


5.  it  is  not  accurately  known,  by  whom 
the  compass  was  invented.  The  English 
first  suspended  the  compass,  so  as  to  ena- 
ble it  to  retain  always  a  horizontal  position, 
and  the  Dutch  gave  names  to  the  divisions 
of  the  card.  The  earliest  missionaries  to 
China  found  the  magnetic  needle  in  use 
in  that  country.  Some  land  compasses  are 
of  the  size  of  a  watch-seal,  and  actually 
fixed  in  such  seals ;  others  are  of  the 
size  and  external  form  of  a  pocket  watch. 
Sometimes  a  sun-dial  is  affixed  to  com- 
pass-boxes. The  box,  of  whatever  mate- 
rial it  is  made,  must  have  no  particle  of 
iron  in  its  construction. 

6.  In  1203,  the  Venetians  transported  a 
great  army,  chiefly  French,  to  the  Holy 
Land.  They  all  stopped  by  the  way  to 
assist  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 
Some  disagreements  about  the  pay  arising, 
they  took  the  city,  and  made  one  of  their 
leaders  emperor. 

7.  The  Venetians  seized  for  themselves, 
as  their  reward,  the  whole  of  the  Pelopo- 
nessus,  or  Morea,  with  all  its  islands,  rich- 
es, and  silk  manufactories,  and  part  of  the 
city  of  Constantinople  itself.  They  pur- 
chased too,  from  one  of  the  Crusaders,  the 
whole  island  of  Crete,  or  Candia.  But 
they  weakened  their  commercial  power, 
by  spreading  it  over  so  much  territory. 
They  obtained,  however,  entire  command 
of  all  that  Eastern  commerce,  of  which 
Constantinople  had  been  long  the  centre 
and  storehouse. 

8.  Candia  was,  not  long  after,  in  1206, 
taken  by  the  Genoese :  it  was,  indeed, 
soon  recovered  by  the  Venetians  ;  but  an 
incessant  war  between  their  rival  republics 
was  the  consequence  ;  so  that  all  the  wealth 
they  gained  in  commerce,  was  lost  in  vain 
ambition.  This  war  of  merchants  con- 
tinued for  nearly  two  centuries. 


I 


e.  What  did  the  Venetians  do  in  1203  ?    7.  What 
did  Ihey  take  as  their  reward  ?     8.  When,  and  by 
whom  was  Candia  taken  ?    9.  What  took  place 
14 


9.  In  1216,  died  John  king  of  England, 
whose  wars  with  his  nobles  had  induced 
him  to  court  the  towns  and  cities,  by  grant- 
ing them  many  privileges.  The  towns 
flourished,  and  became  populous  and  rich 
by  trade  ;  John  obtained  soldiers  and 
wealth,  and  the  people  rose  into  liberty 
and  independence. 

10.  We  have  been  engaged  hitherto, 
chiefly  among  the  Southern  parts  of 
Europe,  in  countries  bordering  upon  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  We  may  now  travel 
Northward,  and  observe  a  grand  mercantile 
exertion  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  whose 
cities,  upon  or  near  the  sea,  confederated 
for  mutual  defence,  under  the  name  of 
Hanse  Toivns. 

11.  It  seems,  that  even  the  nobles  of 
Germany,  having  no  regular  employment, 
became  banditti  ;  robbing  all  whom  they 
were  able  to  overcome,  to  the  great  injury 
of  the  mercliants  trading  from  place  to 
place.  The  citizens  of  Hamburgh  and 
Lubeck,  by  mutual  agreement,  established 
a  guard  to  protect  their  commodities  in 
passing  from  either  of  those  cities  to  the 
other,  in  1241.  The  convenience  of  this 
joint  defence  was  soon  manifest ;  so  that 
it  was  adopted  by  other  cities,  who  joined 
in  the  association,  of  which  commerce  was 
the  only  bond. 

12.  One  after  another,  the  maritime 
-ities,  not  of  Germany  only,  but  of  all  the 
neighboring  seas,  entered  into  the  con- 
federacy ;  and  in  the  issue,  nearly  all  the 
commercial  towns,  even  of  France,  Spain, 
and  the  South  of  Europe,  joined  this  Ger- 
man league  for  mutual  defence. 

13.  The  confederates  formed  laws  among 
themselves,  and  exercised  a  jurisdiction 
over  all  who  belonged  to  it.  They  had  a 
common  stock,  or  treasury,  at  Lubeck; 
and    kept    warehouses  in   many  principal 


in  1216?  10.  What  were  the  Hanse  Towns? 
11.  What  of  the  nobles  of  Germany?  12.  What 
other  cities  entered  into  the  confederacy?    13 


16b 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


cities,  as  London,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  Berg 
in  Norway,  and  Novogorod  in  Russia. 

1 4.  This  common  feeling  and  common 
stock  made  them  very  powerful.  As  they 
were  rich  in  shipping,  princes  hired  their 
assistance,  and  made  treaties  with  them. 
The  same  power  enabled  them  to  make 
war  with  such  princes  and  states  as  gave 
them  offence.  They  raised  armies  as  well 
as  fleets ;  took  possession  of  provinces, 
and  exercised  sovereignty  ;  though  always 
with  a  strict  view  to  the  protection  of  their 
commerce.  The  kings  of  Denmark  were 
repeatedly  defeated  by  them.  In  1428, 
they  brought  against  the  Danes  two  hundred 
and  fifty  ships,  carrying  twelve  thousand 
soldiers  ;  and  dictated  their  own  terms  of 
peace. 

15.  This  wealth  enabled  them  to  oblige 
crowned  heads  with  considerable  loans  of 
money ;  and  in  return,  they  obtained 
many  important  privileges  in  their  com- 
mercial transactions  with  the  states  of  those 
princes,  some  of  whom  even  declared 
themselves  protectors  of  the  Hanseatic 
confederation.  Their  deeds,  their  ^^on, 
their  wisdom,  and  their  success,  were 
viewed  by  all  parties  with  great  admiration. 
Though  princes,  in  whose  realms  they 
had  establishments,  were  at  war  with  each 
other,  yet  the  members  of  this  league 
continued  in  peace,  and  their  ships  were 
unmolested.  Their  cities,  though  widely 
remote  and  under  different  governments, 
were  yet  held  in  strict  and  brotherly  union, 
on  the  simple  principle  of  commerce. 

16.  During  the  crusades,  the  Hanse 
Towns  were  of  important  service,  both  as 
to  money,  and  shipping  to  transport  the 
numerous  armies  towards  the  Holy  Land. 

17.  That  the  power  they  had  obtained 
should  make  them  insolent,  is  only  the 
natural  effect  of  all  power,  when  it  rises 


What  did  the  confederates  do?  14.  What  of 
their  power?  15.  How  did  they  obtain  many 
jooportant   privileges?     16.    Were   tb©    Hanse 


beyond  control.  Nor  should  it  be  wonder- 
ed at,  if  such  conduct,  in  process  of  time, 
awakened  the  jealousy  even  of  those  sove- 
reigns who  had  once,  for  their  own  conve- 
nience, fostered  the  confederation.  Greal 
privileges  had  been  allowed  them  in  Eng-  ; 
land,  by  Edward  I.,  and  which  were  of 
service  for  awhile  ;  but  as  they  produced 
almost  a  monopoly  of  the  English  trade, 
their  immunities  were  curtailed  under  Ed- 
ward VI. 

18.  A  great  blow  was  Also  struck  at 
them,  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  in  the  time 
of  Elizabeth  :  in  1589,  he  found  sixty  of 
their  ships  in  the  Tagus,  loaded  with  corn 
for  Spain,  which  was  projecting  the  grand 
armada  against  England;  and  he  took  it 
all  away  as  contraband,  though  he  did  no 
damage  to  their  vessels.  They  complained  1 
of  this  to  the  Empire  as  an  outrage  ;  but| 
the  queen  justified  the  conduct  of  her  ad- 
miral, though  the  German  states  resented 
it. 

19.  So  flourishing  were  they,  and,  in 
the  course  of  two  centuries,  so  formidable 
had  they  become,  that  a  powerful  league 
against  them  began  to  be  negotiated.  In 
1518,  the  governments  of  several  states 
commanded  all  their  cities  to  withdraw 
from  the  connexion.  The  union  then  with-  . 
drew  from  several  others,  and  confined  the 
association  to  the  limits  of  Germany  and 
its  immediate  vicinity.  This  made  them 
no  longer  the  objects  of  fear  or  of  envy  ; 
but  they  thus  became  weakened,  and  event- 
ually sunk,  about  1622.  The  league  has 
long  ceased  to  exist ;  and  the  towns,  once 
so  famous,  carry  on  their  trade,  each  sep- 
arately, independent  of  the  rest. 

20.  That  we  might  give  the  account  of 
the  Hanse  Towns  in  one  view,  we  have 
brought  it  down  much  below  the  general 
course  of  our  history;  and  we  must  go 


Towns  of  service  in  forwarding  the   crusades' 

17.  Were  privileges  allowed  them  in  England 

18.  What  of  Sir  Francis  Drake?  19.  What  of  the 


BISTORT    OF    COMMERCE. 


IM 


back  a  little,  in  the  order  of  time,  to  watch 
the  progress  of  commerce  in  another 
quarter. 

21.  Venice,  Genoa,  Pisa,  &c.  were  great 
trading  cities  ;  and  by  bringing  the  precious 
commodities  into  Europe,  obtained  vast 
wealth  by  the  sale  of  them.  Some  of  the 
Lombard  cities,  Florence  eminently,  set 
up  manufactures,  and  laid  all  Europe  under 
contribution,  by  the  excellency  of  their 
fal)rics. 

22.  We  find  them,  in  1251,  establishing 
houses  for  trade  in  various  parts  of  Italy, 
and  even  in  several  foreign  nations  of 
Europe.  Many  of  the  merchants  of  Flo- 
rence, who  had  amassed  great  wealth,  were 
applied  to  by  needy  princes  and  nobles,  to 
whom  they  lent  their  money  at  considera- 
ble interest.  This  business  they  could 
transact  with  ease,  by  reason  of  their 
houses  and  establishments,  in  so  many 
countries. 

23.  They  introduced  the  mode  of  re- 
mitting money  by  bills  of  exchange,  and 
got  nearly  the  whole  of  the  money  business 
into  their  hands.  They  became  thus  the 
bankers  of  Europe.  Milan,  Vienna,  and 
several  other  cities,  followed  their  exam- 
ple ;  and  as  these  were  all  cities  of  Lom- 
bardy,  the  name  of  Lombard  Merchants 
became  attached  to  dealers  in  money. 
The  remains  of  this  are  in  Lombard- 
.street,  in  London,  where,  to  this  day, 
many  bankers  carry  on  their  business. 

24.  Florence  having  purchased  the  port 
of  Leghorn,  we  find  them,  in  1425,  en- 
deavoring to  obtain  a  share  of  that  Indian 
commerce,  by  which  Venice  had  become 
wealthy.  They  sent  ambassadors  to  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  who  received  them  gra- 
ciously, and  gave  them  leave  to  form  set- 
tlements, build  warehouses,  a  church,  &c. 


league  formed  against  the  Hanse  Towns  ?  21. 
What  great  trading  cities  then  existed  ?  22.  What 
did  they  establish  in  1251  ?  2:?.  What  mode  of 
Itemitting  money  did  they  introduce  ?    24.  What 


and  to  have  a  consul  to  manage  their  con- 
cerns. 

25.  In  1464,  died  Cosmo  de  Medicis, 
of  Florence,  who  received  from  his  grate- 
ful citizens,  the  honorable  title  of  Father 
of  his  country.  He  was  the  first  magis- 
trate of  the  city,  and  had  sustained  that 
distinguished  character  for  thirty-four  years. 
He  was  the  greatest  merchant  of  his  time, 
having  commercial  houses  in  every  part 
of  Europe,  and  accommodating  all  who 
had  occasion  either  to  remit  or  to  borrow. 

26.  Yet,  with  a  mind  noble  and  Hberal, 
he  spent  his  vast  wealth  in  conferring  ben- 
efits on  his  country  ;  by  great  works  of 
architecture,  fostering  the  arts,  rewarding 
learned  men,  and  buying  up  all  the  trea- 
sures of  ancient  literature  which  could 
any  where  be  found.  When  Naples  and 
Venice  made  war  with  Florence,  he  de- 
prived them  of  the  means  of  continuing 
the  contest,  by  calling  in  the  vast  sums  of 
money  owing  to  him,  in  those  countries. 
It  was  by  money  borrowed  of  him,  that 
Edward  IV.  supported  his  wars  against 
the  house  of  Lancaster. 

27.  In  about  a  dozen  years,  we  find  Lo- 
renzo de  Medicis,  grandson  of  the  former, 
sustaining  similar  honors,  and  obtaining, 
by  the  application  of  his  vast  wealth,  the 
title  of  Magnificent. 

28.  Perhaps  there  is  no  period  more 
splendid  in  the  history  of  Florence,  than 
about  1490,  under  Lorenzo's  administra- 
tion :  a  wise  system  of  peace  had  enabled 
the  citizens  to  give  all  their  energies  to 
trade  ;  and  they  had  succeeded  according 
ly.  Through  Egypt,  they  procured  the 
most  precious  commodities  of  the  East,  to 
a  great  extent ;  these  found  a  ready  market 
in  every  country  of  Europe.  Their  fine 
linens  were  fabricated  from  the  flax  grown 


did  they  do  in  1425  ?  25,  When  did  Cosmo  de 
Medicis  die  ?  26.  What  of  his  wealth  and  lib- 
eral.-y  ?  27.  His  grandson.?  28  What  is  the 
most  splendid  period  in  the  history  of  commerce  ? 


160 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE. 


in  their  own  fields.  Silkworms  were  plen- 
tiful, and  well  managed  among  them  ;  the 
produce  was  wrought  up  into  the  finest  silk 
and  richest  velvets.  The  material  for  their 
woollen  manufactures  was  procured  part- 
ly from  Spain,  but  chiefly  from  English 
fleeces.  Although  the  English  paid  dearly, 
when  they  took  back  their  own  wools 
woven  into  cloths,  yet  the  trade  was  very 
lucrative  to  both  parties. 

29.  We  find  too,  in  1546,  King  Henry 
VIII.  agreed  with  some  Florentine  mer- 
chants, to  import  '  for  our  pleasure,  and 
our  dearest  wife  the  Queen,  goldsmiths' 
work,  tissue  of  gold  and  silver,  tinsel, 
velvet,  silk,  cloths,  and  tapestry,  fringes, 
and  lace  ;'  upon  condition  that  he  was  to 
have  the  first  sight,  and  the  refusal. 

30.  At  one  time,  and  for  some  centuries 
indeed,  the  principal  manufactories  of 
Europe  were  in  Flanders.  The  indefati- 
gable industry  of  the  Flemings,  joined  with 
a  considerable  portion  of  shrewd  ingenui- 
ty, produced  to  them  wealth  in  an  eminent 
Jegree.  Their  chief  business  lay  in  the 
clothing  trade  ;  and  their  principal  material 
was  the  English  wool. 

31.  If  we  go  back  so  far  as  the  year  960, 
we  shall  find  them  trading  to  great  advan- 
tage, chiefly  with  the  French,  who  were 
able,  by  the  fertility  of  their  soil,  to  carry 
goods  for  barter,  equally  desirable  with 
their  well-labored  cloths.  Money  was  too 
scarce  then,  (in  the  time  of  Alfred,)  to  be- 
come the  medium  of  commerce.  Bald- 
win, Earl  of  Flanders,  saw  the  importance 
of  this  exchange  of  merchandise  :  and, 
very  wisely,  established  weekly  fairs,  in 
four  of  his  principal  cities,  for  this  purpose. 
And  for  the  encouragement  of  trade,  he 
exempted  from  taxation  all  goods  brought 
thither  at  those  times. 

32.  We  have  reason  to  think,  that  long 


29.  What  do  we  find  in  1546  ?  30.  Where  were 
the  principal  manufactories  of  Europe?  31. 
How  far  back  did  they  trade  with  the  French  ? 


before  the  Normans  settled  in  England 
under  William,  the  English  wools  were 
well  prized  in  Flanders,  and  bought  up,  to 
supply  the  manufactures  there.  In  1198, 
the  trade  must  have  been  considerable  to 
the  Flemings,  as  forty-five  sacks  of  wool, 
intended  for  them,  were  seized  at  the  port 
of  Hull  only.  It  was  esteemed  superior 
to  Spanish  wool,  at  that  time.  King  John 
gave  them  the  privilege  of  freely  trading 
here  for  wool ;  and  for  ages,  the  finest 
cloths  were  sent  from  Flanders,  all  over 
Europe. 

33.  In  1253,  we  find  the  Flemings  fa- 
mous for  their  linens  also  :  none  so  perfect, 
nor  so  fine,  as  theirs.  The  beneficial  ef- 
fect of  these  manufactures  was  felt  by  all 
ranks.  The  Earl  of  Flanders  became  ex- 
ceedingly opulent,  as  did  also  many  of  the 
merchants. 

34.  This  prosperity  received  a  check 
frotn  that  curse  upon  all  success,  war. — A 
civil  war  arose,  in  which  thirty  thousand 
Flemings  fell  in  one  battle  ;  and  half  a 
century  elapsed  before  the  peaceful  arts 
could  recover  from  this  obstruction  ;  but 
the  native  industry  of  the  people  at  last 
triumphed,  and  well  repaid  them.  They 
still  greatly  de})ended  on  England  for  wool ; 
and,  in  1337,  Edward  III.  sent  off  six 
thousand  sacks  to  Brabant :  he  bought 
them  of  his  subjects,  at  61.  per  sack,  and 
sold  them  at  20/.  each.  He  depended  on 
the  sale  of  wool,  for  money  to  support  his 
army  in  his  wars  with  France.  It  was 
under  his  patronage,  that  wool -staplers  and 
weavers  were  invited  to  come  over  and 
settle  in  England,  a  few  years  before,  in  . 
1331. 

35.  The  Netherlands  continued  eminen 
for  their   manufactures,  and  in  the  com- 
merce thence   resulting,  till,  in   1584,  the 
beautiful   city    of  Antwerp    was  besieged 


32.  Were  tlie  English  wools  prized  in  Fland<>rs  * 

33.  For  what  were  the  Flemings  famous  in  1253 ' 

34 .  What  check   did   this   prosperity    receive ' 


HISTOET    OF    COMMERCE 


161 


and   taken   by   the   Duke   of  Parma,  the 

Spanish    Governor.     For   three    days  his 

soldiers   plundered    the  city,  from  which 

they  carried  off  immense  wealth,  and  de- 

^.stroyed  still  more  by  fire  :  three  thousand 

j.-of  the  inhabitants  fell  by  the  sword,  and 

^  3  .as  many  more  were  burnt,  trodden  to  death, 

oi  drowned. 

3b.  The  ruin  of  this  city  destroyed  the 
pros-verity  of  the  country  ;  and  all  its  noble 
manufactures  were  dispersed  among  other 
nations.  The  fisheries  were  removed  to 
Holland;  the  woollen  manufacture  was 
settled  mostly  at  Leyden  ;  the  linen  went 
(to  Haerlem  and  Amsterdam.  One-third 
of  the  merchants,  and  artisans  in  silks, 
damasks,  serges,  and  lighter  woollens,  stock- 
ings, &c.  settled  in  England.  Some  of 
the  refugees  went  to  Sweden,  and  taught 
the  natives  to  cast  cannon,  and  work  in 
iron,  brass,  and  copper,  extracted  from 
their  own  mines ;  and  which  they  had  be- 
fore sent  to  Prussia,  to  be  forged  and 
wrought  up. 

37.  Thus  the  cruel,  persecuting  spirit 
of  Popery  paused  the  ruin  of  those  once 
happy  and  flourishing  provinces. 

CHAP.  XLII. 

1.  Hitherto,  the  trade  to  India,  whoever 
possessed  it,  was  carried  on  through  Persia 
by  land,  or  by  sea,  through  Egypt,  subject 
to  the  dominations  and  extortions  of  the 
Saracens.  It  had  enriched  Amalfi,  Venice, 
Genoa,  Pisa,  Florence,  Barcelona,  all  cities 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  had  raised  a 
spirit  of  jealousy  in  other  powers,  because 
they  were  unable  to  procure  the  precious 
commodities  of  the  East,  otherwise  than 
at  exorbitant  prices,  laid  upon  tliem  by 
these  monopolizers. 

2.  But  the  time    was  fast    approaching 


35.  Did  the  Netherlands  continue  eminent  for 
their  manufactures  ?  36.  Did  the  ruin  of  this  city 
destroy  the  prosperity  of  the  country  .' 

1 .  How  was  the  trade  to  India  hitherto  carried 
11 


when  enterprise,  animated  by  some  scat- 
tered rays  of  science,  was  destined  to  dis- 
cover a  new  way  to  that  land  of  gold  and 
diamonds.  The  whole  trade  then  took  a 
different  channel,  and  poured  its  supera- 
bundant wealth  upon  other  nations. 

3.  In  1415,  John,  king  of  Portugal, 
took  Ceuta,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  from 
the  Moors ;  and  by  conversing  with  some 
of  the  Saracen  captives,  his  son,  Prince 
Henry,  began  to  conceive  the  practicabili- 
ty of  sailing  round  Africa,  and  passing 
over  an  open  sea  the  whole  way  to  India. 

4.  He  was  a  prince  whose  mind  was 
enlightened  and  cultivated  beyond  the  gen- 
eral attainments  of  the  age  ;  and  when  he 
came  to  the  throne,  he  spread  a  love  of 
science  through  his  small  kingdom,  where- 
by he  raised  it  to  considerable  emmence 
and  power.  He  encouraged  learned  and 
ingenious  men,  in  every  branch  of  know- 
ledge. 'He  erected  an  observatory,  and 
endowed  schools.  He  employed  the  most 
skilful  geographers  to  construct  maps  ;  and 
although  these  were  extremely  incorrect, 
being  composed  chiefly  from  report,  they 
served  to  show  in  what  direction  the  un- 
known parts  should  be  sought  for.  And 
he  became  very  desirous  of  making  dis- 
coveries, when  he  saw  so  plainly  which 
way  such  endeavors  should  be  directed. 

5.  His  first  voyagers  crept  cautiously 
along,  the  coast  of  Africa,  till  they  came 
to  Cape  Bojador,  in  lat.  27.  N.,  a  little 
more  soutlierly  than  the  Canary  Islands. 
Their  first  voyages  were  disgraced  by  hos- 
tile attacks  on  the  negroes,  and  the  kid- 
napping of  slaves.  Yet  the  advantages 
they  obtained  served  to  sanction  subse- 
quent attempts  at  discovery,  which  other- 
wise had  appeared  wild  and  useless 
schemes.     In    1481,    a    castle    was  built 


on  ?  2.  Did  it  take  a  different  channel  ?  3.  4 
What  of  John.king  of  Portugal  ?  5.  Where  did  the 
first  voyagers  go  ?  6.  Whither  did  he  send  per 
sons?  What  of  Bartholomew  Diaz?  What  nam© 


162 


BOOK    or    COMMERCE. 


and  the  king  of  Portugal  assumed  the  title 
of  <Lord  of  Guinea.' 

6.  John  II.  sent  persons  overland  to  In- 
dia, to  gain  information,  by  whom  he  was 
encouraged  to  hope,  that,  by  perseverance, 
a  way  by  sea  to  India  would  certainly  be 
discovered.  But  before  he  received  this 
information,  Bartholomew  Diaz  returned 
from  a  long  voyage,  of  above  a  thousand 
miles.  He  had  gone  to  the  soutliern  ex- 
tremity of  Africa ;  but  had  been  beaten 
back  by  the  storms  he  met  with  there. 
John,  delighted  with  the  expectation  of 
80on  accomplishing  his  wishes,  called  the 
stormy  point  the  'Cape  of  Good  Hope,' 
which  name  it  bears  to  the  present  day. 
This  was  in  1487. 

7.  Ten  years  elapsed  before  any  farther 
attempts  were  made.  Then,  in  1497,  Em- 
manuel, king  of  Portugal,  sent  out  A'asco 
de  Gama,  with  three  ships,  to  prosecute 
the  long-desired  discovery.  He  succeeded 
in  passing  the  Cape,  and  steered  up  the 
eastern  side  of  Africa :  he  was  surprised 
to  find  numerous  nations  much  more  civi- 
lized than  the  negroes  of  the  western  coast. 
At  Quiloa  and  Mombaza  he  found  large 
s^ips,  charts,  instruments,  and  a  direct 
trade  to  India.  He  procured  an  Indian 
pilot,  and  sailed  straight  across  the  ocean, 
for  Calicut. 

8.  The  way  was  now  open  to  India,  and 
thereby  to  wealth  and  luxury.  All  the 
power  or  machinations  of  V'enice  could 
not  stop  up  this  passage  :  nor  could  they, 
in  their  old  tedious  course,  compete  wuth  j 
this  direct,  easy,  and  expeditious  mode  of 
procuring  the  commodities  so  much  desir- 
ed by  all  the  European  nations. 

9.  In  1500,  Emmanuel,  encouraged  by 
De  Gama's  success,  sent  out  De  Cabral, 
with   thirteen  ships,  and   twelve  hundred 


was  given  to  the  stormy  point  ?  7.  How  many 
years  elapsed  before  any  farther  discoveries  were 
made  ?  What  was  then  done  ?  8.  Was  the  way 
fww  open  to  India?    9.  In  1500,  what  was  done  ? 


men,  for  India.  Driven  far  to  the  west, 
by  a  storm,  he  came  upon  the  South 
American  continent,  at  the  part  now  called 
Brazil ;  of  this  he  took  possession  ;  and  it 
has  been  an  excellent  fund  of  wealth  to 
the  Portuguese  ever  since.  As  De  Cabral 
went  out  to  make  settlements,  he  took  pos- 
session of  Sofala,  Mozambique,  &c.,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa.  Thence  he  sailed 
to  Cochin  and  Cananore,  on  the  Malabar 
coast  of  Hindoostan.  On  his  return,  he 
brought  to  Lisbon  treasures  of  immense 
value. 

10.  Portugal  now  became  the  centre  of 
commerce ;  and  this  small  kingdom  was, 
by  a  succession  of  wise  princes,  raised  to 
great  eminence,  prosperity,  and  power. 

11.  Vasco  de  Gama  went  out  again,  in 
1501.  He  then  built  a  fort  at  Cochin, 
subdued  some  petty  kings  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  and  sent  ships  against  the  Moors, 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea.  These 
were  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  Portu- 
guese in  India;  being  stimulated  by  the 
Venetians,  who  hoped  to  crush  the  Portu- 
guese commerce  in  its  infancy. 

12.  This  commerce,  however,  flourished 
splendidly,  till  the  kingdom  was  seized,  in 
1580,  by  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain.  Spain 
was  not  enriched  by  this  conquest;  because 
nothing  can  enrich  the  indolent.  But  Por- 
tugal sank  under  her  oppression ;  till  she 
revived  again,  on  the  House  of  Braganza 
obtaining  the  throne,  in  1640. 

13.  Thus  we  have  seen  the  Portuguese 
pressing  on  southwards,  till  they  doubled 
or  turned  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
and  then  they  found  a  ready  way  to  India. 
In  so  doing,  they  only  persevered  in  a 
track  which  was  strongly  supposed,  nay 
almost  known,  to  be  practicable.  But  we 
are  about  to  contemplate  exertions  made 


10.  Did  Portugal  increase  in  power?  11.  Did 
Vasco  de  Gama  make  another  voyage  ?  12.  How 
long  did  this  commerce  flourish  ?  13.  Did  Por- 
tugal revive  again?      14.    What  of  Columbus' 


HISTORY    OF    COMMERCE. 


163 


m  another  direction,  concerviing  which 
experience  said  nothing,  and  science  only 
ventured  to  guess  and  to  hope. 

14.  Christopher  Colon,  or,  as  he  is  usu- 
ally called,  Columbus,  conceived  the  strange 
project  of  searching  out  a  way  to  India  by 
sailing  directly  west ;  although  going,  ap- 
parently, quite  away  from  the  object  sought 
after.  That  the  earth  was  a  Urge  plain, 
had  been  the  ignorant  notion  of  many  phi- 
losophers ;  but  he  had  imbibed  the  opinion 
of  its  being  a  globe.  As  the  account  of 
India  represented  it  as  stretching  to  an 
unknown  extent  eastwards,  he  supposed 
that  its  eastern  extremity  might  be  sooner 
found  by  sailing  directly  westward. 

15.  His  project  was  treated  as  a  wild 
chimera  ;  and  he  had  to  endure  rebuffs 
and  contumely  for  several  years  :  but  with 
the  perseverance  which  accompanies  a 
great  mind,  he  continued  his  applications 
to  different  states  for  patronage,  till  at  last, 
Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  and  consort  of 
Ferdinand,  king  of  Arragon,  furnished  him 
with  three  small  vessels,  for  the  fitting  out 
of  which  she  was  obliged  to  pledge  her 
jewels.  With  astonishing  hardihood,  Co- 
lumbus sailed  through  those  unknown 
deeps,  and  at  last  received  the  reward  of 
genius  in  the  discovery,  not  indeed  of  In- 
dia, but  of  large  and  well-peopled  coun- 
tries. 

16.  In  subsequent  voyages,  he  discover- 
ed the  main  continent  of  America ;  future 
navigators  quickly  followed  his  course,  till 
the  double  continent  of  the  Western  hem- 
isphere was  completely  explored,  and  a 
new  world  was  opened  to  Europe.  Amer- 
icus  Vespucius,  a  native  of  Florence,  sail- 
ed in  his  track,  and,  by  a  singular  injustice, 
succeeded  in  giving  his  name  to  the  newly- 
discovered  land.       New  scenes  of  barba- 


15.  How  was  his  project  received  ?  Who  fur- 
nished him  with  vessels?  J 6.  Did  other  navi- 
gators follow?  Who  succeeded  in  giving  his 
name  to  the  new  world?     17.  Was  Spain  enrich- 


rism  and  of  civilisation  rose  in  view,  with 
new  opportunities  for  commerce. 

17.  Spain  found  gold  in  plenty  there, 
but  was  not  enriched  ;  for  the  wealth  so 
obtained,  made  her  people  idle ;  and  it  is 
not  gold,  but  science  and  industry  which 
make  a  nation  wealthy.  It  was  in  1492, 
that  Columbus  discovered  this  Western 
world;  and,  still  imagining  that  India 
stretched  thus  far,  he  gave  to  his  discove- 
ries the  name  of  JVest  Indies^  which  still 
adheres  to  those  fruitful  islands. 

18.  The  whole  stream  of  commerce  was 
now  diverted,  or  rather  split,  into  two  di- 
rections, east  and  west ;  and  the  old  chan- 
nels of  trade  became  almost  dried  up. 
We  will  now  glance  a  moment  to  the  pro- 
gress of  commerce  in  Great  Britain. 

19.  The  trading  to  England  of  the 
Phoenicians  for  tin,  in  ages  far  remote,  is 
well  authenticated.  It  is  known,  too,  that 
in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  there  was  con- 
tinual intercourse  with  Rome  and  its  de- 
pendent provinces  ;  yet  neither  of  these 
could  well  be  called  the  trade  of  Britain. 
When  the  Romans  left  the  island,  wars 
and  devastations  succeeded  for  ages  ;  and 
we  must  come  down  to  the  time  of  Al- 
fred, before  we  can  discern  any  thing  like 
trade. 

20.  He  built  a  great  navy,  well  aware 
that  no  effectual  resistance  could  be  madte 
against  the  Danes,  but  by  meeting  them  at 
sea,  and  not  suffering  them  to  land.  He 
built  also  ships  for  trade ;  and  as  he  had 
jewels,  silk,  &c.  there  must  have  been 
some  commerce.  Indeed,  he  is  said  to 
have  sent  the  Bishop  of  Shirebourn  with 
relief  to  the  Christians  in  India,  and  en- 
deavored to  settle  some  regular  intercourse 
with  those  distant  parts. 

21.  Athelstan,  in  938,  in  order  to  en- 

ed  by  the  gold  she  obtained?  18.  Was  com- 
merce now  diverted  ?  19.  What  people  traded 
to  England  for  tin  ?  20.  What  did  Alfred  do  ? 
21 .  Athelstan  ?    22.  What  of  the  dominion  of 


164 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


courage  commerce,  conferred  by  law  the 
high  rank  of  Thaue,  or  Lord,  upon  any 
merchant  who  had  made  three  voyages 
over  the  sea  with  his  own  vessel  and  cargo. 
That  there  was  some  commerce  in  horses, 
appears  by  his  making  a  law  against  their 
exportation,  except  as  presents. 

22.  The  dominion  of  the  Danes  in  En- 
gland had  one  good  effect,  as  then  all  the 
Northern  nations  being  under  one  head, 
trade  was  free,  and  there  were  no  pirates. 

23.  The  manufactures  of  those  times 
were  but  few ;  yet  the  English  goldsmiiiis 
were  famous  for  their  jewellery  work,  for- 
eigners coming  over  to  procure  them  ;  and 
the  females  were  celebrated  for  their  rich 
and  exquisite  embroideries,  even  so  early 
as  the  time  of  Alfred.  The  green  pastures 
of  England  had  always  supported  innume- 
rable flocks  and  herds,  and  there  is  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  wool  was,  even  then, 
bought  up  by  the  Flemings,  as  we  well 
know  it  was  afterwards. 

24.  From  the  period  of  the  Normans 
settling  in  England,  the  whole  aspect  of 
the  times  and  manners,  as  well  as  of  the 
history  of  them,  is  changed.  The  con- 
queror's gleanings  from  the  oppressed  coun- 
try, after  all  his  wars,  amounted  to  sixty 
thousand  pounds  weight  of  silver  ;  besides 
gold,  gems,  and  brilliant  jewels.  Internal 
trade  must  have  been  insecure,  as  a  law 
was  made  forbidding  markets  to  be  held, 
except  in  cities,  and  borough  towns,  where 
they  could  be  protected.  The  importance 
of  such  places  appears  in  another  law, 
that  if  any  slave  escaped  from  his  lord, 
and  lived  one  year  in  a  city  or  borough 
town,  he  should  continue  free  for  ever: 
this  was  an  excellent  means  of  refuge 
against  oppression,  and  tended  to  raise  the 
towns,  and  increase  the  number  of  free- 
men. 


Iht  Danes  in  England  r  23.  What  were  the 
manufactures  of  those  times?  24.  When  was 
the  aspect  of  things  changed  ?    25.  In  1156,  what 


25.  In  1156,  when  Henry  II.  reigned, 
most  of  the  houses  in  London  were  thatch- 
ed ;  yet  bishops,  and  nobles,  and  some  of 
the  richer  citizens,  had  houses  of  stone. 
A  writer  of  that  date  tells  us,  the  citizens 
were  eminent  for  the  elegance  of  their 
dress  and  manners.  He  says,  no  city  in 
the  world  exported  merchandise  to  such 
great  distance3.  He  mentions  goods  of 
Egypt,  Bagdad,  and  India,  as  imported ; 
but  whether  direct  from  those  places,  or 
from  Venice,  or  Genoa,  he  does  not  say. 

26.  A  market  was  held  every  Friday, 
in  Smithfield,  for  horses  and  cattle.  The 
King's  palace  at  Westminster  was  two 
miles  from  the  city ;  and  all  the  space  be- 
tween was  occupied  with  houses  and  gar- 
dens, belonging  to  the  citizens.  On  the 
north  were  open  fields,  and  a  lake,  (now 
Moorfields,)  and  beyond  these  a  forest 
wherein  the  citizens  diverted  themselves 
with  hunting. 

27.  The  commerce  at  this  time  was 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners,  who 
brought-their  choice  commodities  to  a  good 
market.  Bristol,  Chester,  and  Norwich, 
were  famous  for  commerce  ;  ships  coming 
to  them  from  Ireland,  Aquitoine,  Norway, 
and  Germany. 

28.  The  long  reign  of  Henry  II.  seems 
to  have  been  favorable  to  English  industry 
and  commerce.  He  ordained  that  no  ship 
built  in  England  should  be  sold  to  foreign 
ers.  The  produce  of  the  mines  of  copper, 
iron,  lead,  and  tin,  was  exported.  The 
English  had  no  mines  of  silver ;  but  they 
obtained  that  metal  from  Germany,  in  ex- 
change for  fish,  wool,  cattle,  butter,  and 
cheese.  The  author  says,  too,  that  all  the 
nations  of  the  werld  were  kept  warm  by 
English  wool,  mar^e-  into  clothing  by  the 
Flemings* 

29.  The  tumultuous  reign  of  John  be- 


was  the  state  of  society  ?  25  What  of  the  Smith- 
field  market  .="  W.  /m  w?ioy.  hands  principally 
was  commerce  lu  tha   time  «*     f^.  Was  the  reigrt 


HISTORY    OF    COMMEftCE. 


165 


came  favorable  to  English  liberty,  as  it 
obliged  the  Barons  to  force  Magna  Charta 
from  him,  and  as  his  disputes  with  them 
obliged  him  in  his  turn  to  court  and  favor 
the  towns,  whereby  trade  received  consid- 
erable benefit.  Yet,  in  1236,  Henry  III. 
and  his  nobles  possessed  the  utmost  con- 
tempt for  citizens  and  merchants ;  and  the 
King  oppressed  those  of  London,  by  griev- 
ous extortions. 

30.  At  the  coronation  of  Edward  I.  in 
1274,  a  gorgeous  display  was  made  of  silks 
and  gold  stuffs.  These  came  from  abroad  ; 
and  we  may  see,  by  the  quantity,  there 
must  have  been  some  considerable  com- 
merce of  exports,  by  which  to  obtain  them. 

31.  It  belongs  to  this  history  to  state, 
that  the  Jews,  who  followed  commerce 
wherever  it  went,  were  every  where  dread- 
fully oppressed,  robbed,  and  murdered. 
Some  of  the  English  kings  have  been  in- 
famously eminent  in  these  unjust  proceed- 
ings. Such  oppression  had  its  usual  effect, 
in  making  the  objects  of  it  cunning,  servile, 
and  extortionate  in  their  own  defence,  and 
to  avenge  the  injuries  they  sustained.  Ed- 
ward I.  imprisoned  them  all  over  England : 
in  one  day  he  hanged  two  hundred  and 
eighty  in  London,  besides  great  numbers 
in  other  places,  and  confiscated  all  their 
wealth. 

32.  A  circumstance,  which  appears 
strange  to  us,  was  very  frequent  during 
these  unsettled  times.  Some  one  or  more 
cities,  of  one  nation,  would  be  at  war  with 
some  of  the  cities  of  another  nation  ;  al- 
though the  chiefs,  or  kings,  were  mutually 
at  peace.  In  1317,  the  quarrels  between 
the  English  and  Flemings  became  so  fierce, 
that  all  commercial  intercourse  was  sus- 
pended. 

33.  The  Earl  of  Flanders,  and  the  King 

of  Henry  H.  favorable  to  Enjrlish  commerce  ? 
29.  The  reign  of  John  ?  30.  What  display  was 
made  at  the  coronation  of  Edward  1.  ?  31.  Were 
tlie  Jews  oppressed  in  England  ?    32.  What  of 


of  England  were  obliged  to  interfere,  and 
negotiate  a  peace  between  their  respective 
subjects.  On  account  of  these  disturban- 
ces, merchants  never  knew,  when  they  set 
out  upon  a  voyage,  whether  they  should 
be  treated  as  friends,  or  have  their  proper- 
ty seized,  as  enemies,  and  be  themselves 
imprisoned,  when  they  reached  their  des- 
tined port. 

34.  It  was  in  1331,  under  the  invitation 
of  Edward  III.,  that  John  Kempe,  a  weaver 
of  woollen  cloth,  was  encouraged  to  come 
over  to  England,  with  his  servants,  appren- 
tices, and  all  his  goods.  Edward  had 
observed  the  wealth  accumulated  by  the 
manufacturers  of  Enghsh  wool  in  Flan- 
ders ;  and  wishing  to  keep  that  money  in 
England,  he  endeavored  to  obtain  weavers, 
who  might  teach  the  English  this  impor- 
tant art,  and  thus  prevent  so  much  treasure 
from  going  out  of  the  kingdom. 

35.  The  wisdom  of  his  policy  is  felt  at 
the  present  day ;  the  woollen  manufacture 
being  one  of  the  most  important  branches 
of  their  trade.  The  reign  of  Edward  was 
long ;  and,  in  spite  of  wars  and  difficulties, 
the  English  applied  themselves  to  com- 
merce with  great  perseverance  and  success. 

36.  The  profusion  of  young  Richard  II. 
brought  into  the  country  all  sorts  of  fine- 
ries, to  supply  the  costly  magnificence  of 
his  taste.  But  his  dethronement  by  Henry 
IV.  occasioned  incessant  wars  between  the 
houses  of  York  and  Lai /'.aster;  so  that 
the  kingdom  was  depopulated,  and  com- 
merce and  manufactures  were  almost 
ruined. 

37.  During  this  reign,  however,  before 
those  wars  began,  the  commerce  of  Eng- 
land had  arisen  so  much,  as  to  rouse  the 
jealousy  of  the  Hanse  Confederacy  ;  and, 
according  to  the  fashion  of  those    times, 


the  quarrels  between  the  English  and  Flemings  ? 
33.  What  were  the  consequences  of  these  distur- 
bances ?  34.  What  of  John  Kempe  .'  35.  Was 
the  policy  of  Edward  a  wise  one  ?    36.  What 


lee 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


this  resentment  broke  out  into  piracy  ;  the 
Genoese  Government  seizing  rich  vessels 
of  the  English  and  openly  selling  their 
cargoes,  in  hopes  of  crushing  the  mer- 
chants entirely. 

38.  For  a  long  season,  the  commerce 
of  England  was  in  the  hands  of  foreign- 
ers, who  brought  their  commodities,  and 
took  back  hers.  But  we  find  the  English 
beginning  to  trade  on  their  own  account, 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Henry  VI.  to  Por- 
tugal, and,  under  Henry  VII.,  into  the 
Levant.  It  was  in  the  latter  reign,  that 
Columbus  made  his  discovery  of  America. 

39.  During  his  long  negotiation  with 
Spain,  for  the  means  of  carrying  his  pro- 
ject into  effect,  and  wh^n  he  despaired  of 
success,  he  sent  his  brother  Bartholomew 
to  England,  to  make  an  offer  of  his  ser- 
vices to  Henry  VII.  On  his  way,  he  was 
taken  by  pirates,  robbed,  and  imprisoned 
for  years  :  so  that,  before  he  could  make 
his  proposals  here,  his  brother  had  suc- 
ceeded with  Spain. 

40.  Henry,  vexed  at  having  lost  the 
golden  opportunity,  commissioned  Sebas- 
tian Cabot,  a  native  of  Bristol,  to  make  a 
voyage  of  discovery  ;  he  reached  the  con- 
tinent, now  called  North  America,  and 
traced  its  whole  line  of  coast  from  Labra- 
dor to  Florida,  and  even  sailed  to  Cuba. 
On  his  return,  Henry  was  at  war  with 
Scotland,  and  had  neither  time  nor  money 
to  make  a  right  use  of  such  an  opportunity. 

41.  During  his  reign,  and  by  his  policy, 
however,  commerce  reaped  great  advan- 
tages from  the  leave  he  gave  to  the  land- 
holders to  sell  their  estates ;  and  from  the 
restraint  he  put  upon  the  nobility,  against 
attaching  to  themselves  great  numbers  of 
retainers.  Both  laws  enfeebled  the  nobles ; 
and,  by   making   the  commons    of  much 


were  the  consequences  of  the  profusion  of  Rich- 
ard II.  ?  37.  Was  the  prosperity  of  England  as- 
sailed ?  38.  When  did  the  English  begin  to  trade 
«n  their  own  account  ?    39.  What  of  Bartholo- 


greater  importance  than  they  before  po« 
sessed,  raised  the  reputation  of  trade. 

CHAP.  XLin. 

1.  In  the  time  of  Henry  VIIL,  the  re- 
formation from  popery  took  place  ;  which'^^ 
was  of  great  service  to  commerce,  as  it 
stopped  that  absorption  of  activity,  which 
occurred  by  every  monkish  institution, 
which  shut  up  great  numbers  of  men  in 
idleness  ;  and  that  loss  of  money,  which 
had  been  drained  every  year,  by  the  Pope 
and  clerical  men,  out  of  every  nation,  where 
the  influence  of  Rome  had  penetrated. 

2.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  a  north- 
ern voyager  discovered  Archangel,  and 
negotiated  a  trade  with  Russia.  We  find 
also,  during  his  reign,  and  long  after,  the 
famous  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  one  of  the 
greatest  merchants  at  that  time  in  Europe. 

3.  Queen  Elizabeth  gave  continual  en- 
couragement to  commerce  ;  and  her  atten- 
tion to  her  navy  gave  animation  to  all 
maritime  concerns.  The  spirit  of  bravery 
and  of  enterprise  prevailing  at  this  time, 
exalted  the  national  character. 

4.  It  was  in  her  time,  too,  that  the  cruel 
persecutions  of  the  protestants  in  the  Ne- 
therlands, under  the  Duke  of  Alva,  took 
place.  The  expectation  of  his  arrival  in 
that  country  occasioned  so  much  terror, 
that  one  hundred  thousand  persons  emi- 
grated with  all  their  property  ;  and  manu- 
fjictures,  whicli  had  for  ages  been  the  source 
of  immense  wealth  to  the  Flemings,  were 
dispersed  on  every  hand. 

5.  England  had  its  full  share,  as  Eliza- 
beth gave  the  poor  refugees  shelter  and 
encouragement,  whenever  they  came  over^ 
Canterbury,  Norwich,  Colchester,  and  many 
other  places,  became  well  furnished  with 
weavers  of  woollens,  linens,  and  silks  ;  as 


mew  Columbus?   40.  Sebastian  Cabot ?    41.  Did 
commerce  flourish  during  the  reign  of  Henry  ? 

1 .  What  event  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIH.  ?    2.  Of  Edward  VI.  ?    3.  Did  Queen  Eiiz- 


BISTORT    or    COMMERCE. 


lO 


also  with  dyers,  dressers,  and  throwsters, 
whose  ingenuity  enriched  the  country,  and 
continues  so  to  do,  even  at  the  present  day. 

6.  Under  Elizabeth  were  formed  several 
.trading  companies  ;  wlio,  by  a  consolida- 
tion of  interests  and  property,  were  able  to 
make  greater  ventures,  and  sustain  greater 
losses,  without  ruin,  than  any  individual 
merchant  was  capable  of.  The  frequent 
piracies,  which  could  not  be  repressed, 
made  such  associations  necessary ;  and 
they  may  be  regarded  as  the  nurseries  of 
all  the  great  commercial  transactions. 

7.  Companies,  with  exclusive  privileges, 
are  now  looked  upon  with  a  jealous  eye, 
and  are  considered  as  injurious.  That 
free  trade  which  tries  its  own  resources, 
finds  its  own  channel,  and  pushes  its  exer- 
tions wherever  it  is  found  to  be  most  pro- 
fitable, is  beginning  now  to  be  regarded  as 
the  wisest  policy  in  all  cases ;  but  in  the 
infancy  of  commerce,  this  mode  was  not 
safe. 

8.  A  company  trading  to  Russia  had  all 
Elizabeth's  influence ;  it  struggled  with 
many  difficulties,  but,  in  some  shape,  con- 
tinues still.  Another  company  associated 
for  trading  to  Turkey  and  the  Levant. 
This  commerce  became  very  considerable  ; 
and  still  is  the  source  of  much  wealth, 
both  by  its  exports  and  imports. 

9.  Even  the  East-India  Company,  now 
BO  vast  in  its  possessions,  so  strong  in  its 
domination,  and  so  important  in  its  com- 
merce, had  its  beginnings,  though  feeble, 
in  her  reign. 

10.  It  was  under  her  patronage,  also, 
that  settlements  were  first  made  in  North 
America.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  obtained  a 
rharter  for  planting  what  he  called  Virgin- 
ia, in  1584.  Sebastian  Cabot  had  discov- 
ered the  whole  coast  in  1496,  but  no  at- 


abeth  encourage  commerce  ?  4.  What  persecu- 
tion took  place  in  her  time  ?  5.  Did  many  of  the 
refugees  come  to  England  ?  6.  What  companies 
were  formed  under  Elizabeth  r    7.  How  are  com- 


tempt  had  yet  been  made  to  send  a  colony 
thither,  or  to  establish  a  trade. 

11.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  spirit 
of  enterprise  was  pushing  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  this  way  was  fair  and  open,  es- 
pecially as  settlers  went  on  the  princi- 
ple of  purchasing  the  ground  of  the  former 
inhabitants.  Several  expeditions  failed; 
James  Town  was  built,  and  the  colony 
began  to  settle  ;  but  it  perished,  or  return- 
ed ;  and  it  was  not  till  about  1610,  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.  that,  under  Lord  Dela- 
ware, something  like  stability  was  effected. 
In  1609,  Henry  Hudson  discovered  Long 
Island,  with  the  continent  adjacent  ;  and  in 
1614,  the  Dutch  effected  a  settlement  there. 

12.  In  1617,  Mr.  Robinson  and  his  con- 
gregation, who  fled  from,  persecution  in 
their  native  country,  landed,  and  establish- 
ed themselves  in  what  was  then  a  dreary 
wilderness,  and  thus  began  the  settlement 
which  ultimately  became  the  New  England 
States. 

13.  It  was  not  till  1682,  that  William 
Penn  obtained  the  grant  of  Pennsylvania, 


l^^^^'-     •''    ■■     ^"-'g..      V  l^/'l^B 

gpg^r:'^       ;:-'•.•-  -1 

Is^W^^T^ 

which   he  also  purchased   of  the  Indians. 
There  he  founded  an  asylum  for  his  per 
secuted  brethren,  the    Quakers  ;  built  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,   and   established  the 
whole  as  a  wise  legislator. 


panics 


with  exclusive  privileges  now  looked 
upon  r"  8.  What  of  a  company  tradinor  to  Ru* 
sia  ?  To  Turkey  and  the  Levant  ?  9.  The  East- 
India  Company  ?    10.  Wliat  of  the  settlements  in 


I6B 


BOOK    OF    COMDIERCE. 


14.  These  settlements  soon  became  new 
channels  for  commerce,  new  outlets  for 
the  manufactures  of  England ;  while  Spain, 
by  her  conquests  in  the  West  Indies,  Mex- 
ico, Peru,  &c.,  to  the  South,  obtained  the 
gold  and  the  silver,  which  were  of  no  use 
till  they  were  spent  in  the  purchase  of 
manufactures.  She  was  too  indolent  to 
labor  when  thus  enriched,  and  the  more 
industrious  nations  became  the  ultimate 
gainers,  as  she  gave  them  her  gold  in  ex- 
change for  articles  of  necessity,  of  use,  or 
of  splendor.  The  northern  parts  which 
possessed  no  precious  metals  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  English  ;  but  they  had  a  fertile 
soil,  noble  rivers,  dense  tracts  of  wood, 
and  broad  savannas  ;  all  which  afforded 
a  wide  scope  for  industry,  that  truest  of 
riches,  not  debasing,  but  ennobling,  those 
who  are  most  laborious. 

15.  As  about  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  the 
Dutch  provinces  rose  into'  a  commercial 
commonwealth,  and  became  rich  and  pow- 
erful, we  may  as  well  turn  aside  awhile, 
to  contemplate  an  interesting  series  of 
events. 

16.  We  will  go  back  a  little  in  point  of 
time,  and  trace  the  rise  of  this  Republic. 
We  need  not  ascend  farther  than  the  year 
1205,  when  a  small  village  was  built  on  a 
marshy  piece  of  ground,  near  a  dam  on 
the  river  Amstel,  which  obtained  the  name 
of  Amsteldam,  and  was  known  afterwards, 
as  a  most  important  and  flourishing  port 
of  commerce,  under  the  present  designa- 
tion of  Amsterdam.  The  Earl  of  Holland 
favored  the  inhabitants,  and  endeavored 
to  promote  the  trade  of  his  province. 

17.  Coasted  by  the  sea,  the  people  nat- 
urally addicted  themselves  to  fishing ;  and 
we  find  them,  in  1317,  supplying  the  Lon- 
don market  with  fish.     In  1407,  the  Fle- 


America  ?  11 .  By  whom  was  Long  Island  dis- 
covered? When  did  the  Dutch  settle  there? 
12.  What  happened  in  1617?  13.  When  did 
Penn  obtain  the  grant  of  Pennsylvania?    14. 


mings  endeavored  to  confine  the  weaving 
of  cloth  to  the  cities.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  open  villages  therefore,  removed  and 
took  refuge,  some  in  England,  but  many 
more  in  Holland,  which  was  much  nearer^ 
this,  moreover,  laid  the  foundation  for  the 
subsequent  prosperity  of  the  Dutch  pro- 
vinces. 

18.  The  herring  fishery  has  always  been 
I  a  favorite  ein])ioyment  with  the  Dutch.  In 
I  it  they  first  began  to  use  large  vessels,  call- 
ed busses,  in  1416;  and  in  1547,  we  find 
them  fitting  out  siiips  of  war,  for  its  pro- 
tection. This  was  in  the  lime  of  Edward 
VI.  of  England. 

19.  In  1579,  the  people  of  Holland, 
with  six  neighboring  provinces,  being  har- 
assed grievously  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment, and  especially  by  the  religious  per- 
secutions of  the  furious  Duke  of  Alva, 
determined,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  to  throw  off  the  alle- 
giance to  their  tyrannical  masters,  and  to 
associate  for  their  mutual  defence.  Thus 
arose  the  powerful  state,  denominated  the 
Seven  United  Provinces.  A  grand  principle 
with  them  was  to  maintain  liberty  of  con- 
science, as  well  as  all  their  civil  rights. 
They  began  this  league  under  the  heavy 
pressure  of  a  cruel  war,  during  which 
they  were  many  times  reduced  to  the  brink 
of  ruin ;  yet,  by  perseverance,  they  con- 
quered ;  and  by  addressing  themselves  in- 
dustriously to  commerce,  they  not  only 
supported  their  expenses,  but  became  rich 
and  powerful  beyond  example. 

20.  During  thirty  years,  their  war  in 
Spain  continued ;  and  as  they  fought  ob- 
stinately on  the  ocean,  they  brought  the 
Spanish  Monarch  into  considerable  diffi- 
culties ;  almost  ruining  his  trade  with  the 
East  Indies,  and  capturing  his  rich  galleons, 


What  did  these  settlements  soon  become  ?  16. 
What  of  the  rise  of  the  Dutch  provinces  ?  17.  To 
what  did  the  people  addict  themselves  ?  18.  What 
of  the  herring  fishery  ?    19.  What  did  the  peopla 


HISTORY    OF    COMMERCiE. 


Ui 


which  were  bringing  his  golden  treasures 
from  the  West.  A  truce  was  negotiated 
in  1609. 

21.  It  was  in  1584,  as  has  been  stated, 
that  the  beautiful  city  of  Antwerp  was 
taken  and  pillaged  by  the  tyrannizing 
Spaniards,  under  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
This  impolitic  vengeance  ruined  the  com- 
merce of  the  Netherlands,  and  raised  that 
of  neighboring  countries,  especially  of 
Holland.  To  Haerlem,  and  to  Amsterdam, 
the  inhabitants  fled,  the  linen  weavers  es- 
pecially, in  vast  numbers;  whereby  they 
increased  the  industry,  wealth,  and  power 
of  that  trading  republic. 

22.  In  1595,  the  Hollanders  began  to 
send  ships  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
to  India ;  where,  as  the  Portuguese  were 
growing  feeble,  the  Dutch  found  it  easy 
to  dispossess  them.  The  year  after,  we 
find  them  taking  Amboyna,  and  entirely 
subduing  both  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
settlements,  in  the  Moluccas,  or  Spice 
Islands.  They  also  formed  settlements  at 
Balsora,  on  the  Tigris ;  on  the  coasts  of 
India,  Cochin,  &c.,  and  on  the  islands, 
even  to  Japan  ;  making  Batavia,  in  the 
island  of  Java,  their  grand  emporium, 
and  the  seat  of  their  Asiatic  Govern- 
ment. 

23.  The  prosperity  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces grew  with  great  rapidity  ;  following 
every  commercial  nation  into  every  sea, 
and  to  every  city,  where  trade  could  be 
carried  on.  Portugal  was  subject  to  Spain 
till  1640.  The  continual  wars  of  the  Dutch 
with  Spain  gave  them  opportunities  of  at- 
tacking their  eastern  possessions ;  the  decay 
of  Spain,  from  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors, 
and  the  exportation  of  her  natives  to  Ame- 
rica, rendered  the  contest  unequal.  The 
Dutch  obtained  firm  footing  in  India,  and 


of  Holland  do  in  1579  ?  20.  How  long  did  their 
war  in  Spain  continue  ?  21.  When  and  by  whom 
was  Antwerp  taken  ?  22.  When  did  the  Hollan- 
ders begin  to  send  ships  round  the  Cape  of  G^od 
15 


at  the  peace,  in  1647,  all  they  had  thug 
gained  was  confirmed  to  them. 

24.  Their  trade  seems  to  have  been  at 
its  height  about  the  year  1560.  Other 
nations  have,  by  strenuous  exertions,  ob- 
tained considerable  shares  with  them,  since 
that  period  ;  yet  the  Dutch  have  usually 
had  a  very  great  commerce,  which  enabled 
them  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  France, 
under  Louis  XIV. ;  although  they  were  at 
one  time  so  near  ruin,  as  to  contemplate 
the  removal  of  the  whole  nation  to  Bata- 
via. In  despair,  they  cut  their  dykes,  and 
drowned  their  country,  to  drive  the  enemy 
away  ;  and,  by  great  exertions,  both  by 
sea  and  land,  they  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence. 

25.  In  our  own  days,  we  see,  that,  in 
consequence  of  the  French  revolution, 
and  the  wars  arising  out  of  it,  several  of 
the  principal  foreign  stations  of  the  Dutch 
have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  English  ; 
and  their  dissensions  at  home  have  para- 
lyzed their  exertions  ;  so  as  to  reduce  their 
domestic  industry  and  their  foreign  com- 
merce to  a  much  smaller  compass  tiian  it 
had  half  a  century  ago.  Antwerp  has  been 
occupied  by  foreign  troops,  and  the  Dutch 
king  has  been  forced  to  submit  to  the  Uni- 
ted forces  of  France  and  England. 

26.  We  have  given  a  detail  of  the  com- 
merce  of  England  till  the  time  of  Eliza 
beth  ;  when  activity  on  the  wide  seas  be- 
came fashionable  for  all  ranks. 

27.  We  have  hinted  at  the  beginning 
of  the  East-India  Company;  Elizabeth 
gave  it  the  first  charter,  in  1600.  The 
Company  did  not  form  a  common  stock, 
but  each  merchant  traded  separately.  The 
consequence  was,  that  they  conducted  their 
affairs  but  feebly,  and  made  no  settlements, 
till,  in    1620,  they  built  a  fort  at  Madras. 

Hope  ?  23.  Did  the  prosperity  of  the  United 
Provinces  increase  ?  24.  When  was  their  trade 
at  its  height  ?  What  did  they  once  do  to  drive 
away  the  enemy  ?    25.  What  have  we  seen  iH 


170 


BOOK    OF    COMMERCE. 


In  1622,  we  find  them  driven  from  Am- 
boyna,  in  a  murderous  manner,  by  the 
Dutch,  who  were  determined  to  have  the 
whole  of  the  spice  trade  to  themselves. 

28.  In  the  West  Indies,  sugar  is  the 
staple  commodity.  Hitherto,  England  and 
Europe  had  been  supplied  from  Brazil,  by 
the  Portuguese  ;  but  now,  Barbadoes,  the 
first  of  the  British  sugar  colonies,  began  to 
send  some  to  England. 

29.  The  East-India  Company  was  dis- 
solved in  1655  ;  but  the  injury  to  com- 
merce was  so  great,  that  it  was  re-estab- 
lished two  years  afterwards.  In  1655, 
under  the  government  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
the  island  of  Jamaica  was  taken  from  the 
Spaniards;  and  as  Cromwell  wanted  to 
have  Hispaniola  and  Cuba,  he  treated  this 
conquest  with  scorn ;  yet  it  has  proved  of 
immense  advantage  to  England.  Spain 
was  fast  decaying  in  power,  which  it  had 
used  haughtily  ;  and,  by  tha*  means,  had 
forced  other  nations  to  make  great  exer- 
tions, in  order  to  contest  with  her.  Hol- 
land had  risen  with  astonishing  rapidity ; 
and  her  people  had  become  the  common 
carriers  of  Europe. 

30.  England  had  also  entered  with  great 
spirit  into  commerce  ;  and  the  Navigation 
Act,  made  during  the  commonwealth,  had 
great  influence  in  forcing  up  her  resources; 
as  it  forbade  the  bringing  any  foreign  com- 
modities hither  in  any  but  English  vessels, 
unless  they  were  the  produce  of  the  people 
who  brought  them.  This  act  half  ruined 
the  trade  of  the  Dutch,  as  they  could  no 
longer  be  carriers  for  England. 

31.  In  1685,  England,  Holland,  and  all 
the  Protestant  states  of  Europe,  received 
a  great  accession  of  inhabitants,  wealth, 
manufacturing  skill,  and  commercial  ener- 

our  own  day  ?  27.  What  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany ?  What  happened  to  them  in  1622  ?  28. 
Whence  did  England  begin  to  obtain  her  sugar  ? 
29.  When  was  the  East-India  Company  dissolved 
and  re-estabUshed  ?    30.  When  and  under  whose 


gy,  by  the  folly  and  bigotry  of  Louis  XIV., 
who  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes,  by  which 
the  Protestants  of  France  had  held  th<} 
privileges  of  their  religion  and  worship. 
In  a  cruel  manner  was  his  will  executed : 
he  sent  dragoons  into  all  the  Protestant 
towns  and  villages;  and  they  committed 
every  sort  of  outrage  and  insult  upon  the 
unoffending  and  most  honorable  merchants, 
artisans,  and  manufacturers  of  his  kingdom 
It  is  said,  that  nearly  a  million  of  his  best 
subjects,  men,  women,  and  children,  with 
immense  riches,  were  thus  lost  to  France* 
without  any  gain  or  compensation,  excej)t 
the  gratification  of  a  superstitious  and  de- 
praved priesthood. 

32.  The  English  East-India  Company 
were  at  this  period  forming  settlements, 
and  increasing  their  trade.  In  1689,  we 
find  them  settled  on  the  river  Hooghly, 
and  founding  Calcutta,  now  the  principal 
of  their  three  presidencies  in  Hindoostan  ; 
the  others  are,  Madras,  on  the  eastern  coast, 
and  Bombay,  on  the  western. 

33.  By  the  accession  to  the  British 
throne  of  the  Royal  Family  of  Brunswick, 
the  stability  of  the  government  becoming 
every  year  more  apparent,  commerce  in- 
creased with  great  rapidity.  Many  i)lace8, 
which  had  been  but  villages,  sprang  up, 
and  became  rich,  and  important  as  well 
for  size  as  for  mercantile  dealings.  Liver- 
pool, Manchester,  &c.  are  instances  of  this 
prosperity. 

34.  Commerce,  during  the  last  century, 
has  spread  so  widely,  and  ramified  itself 
into  so  many  branches,  that  to  trace  them 
minutely,  or  even  to  name  them  all,  would 
overload  the  memory,  and  defeat  the  pur- 
pose of  this  sketch.  It  may  be  worth 
while,  however,  to  say  something  concern 


government  was  the  island  of  Jamaica  taken  from 
the  Spaniards?  31.  What  of  the  Protestant  per- 
secution in  France  ?  32.  The  English  East-In- 
dia Company  at  this  period  ?  33.  The  accession 
of  the  family  of  Brunswick  to  the  throne  ?    34 


HISTORY    OF    COMMERCE. 


m 


ing  the  East-India  trade ;  because  its  pros- 
perity has  been  great,  and  its  importance 
to  the  nation  is  prominent. 

35.  The  English  had  traded  with  con- 
siderable success,  notwithstanding  much 
opposition  from  the  Dutch  and  the  Portu- 
j^uese.  They  formed  a  settlement  at  Surat, 
which  languished  till  an  unexpected  cir- 
cumstance brought  them  into  favor.  An 
English  physician  had  restored  a  daughter 
of  the  Great  Mogul  to  health  ;  and,  as  a 
reward,  he  received  permission  for  a  free 
trade.  A  similar  kind  of  success  with  the 
Nabob  of  Bengal,  enlarged  this  privilege 
in  that  quarter.  The  ebbings  and  flowings 
of  this  stream  of  commerce  were  greatly 
influenced  by  struggles  at  home,  between 
two  rival  companies  ;  which  were  at  last 
imited  into  one,  in  1708  ;  and  this  union 
contmues  to  the  present  day. 

36.  But  a  principal  occasion  of  this 
great  accession  of  territory  and  power, 
appears  in  a  contention  for  the  Mogul 
throne.  A  second  son  succeeded  to  the 
royalty,  and  the  French  took  part  with 
him  ;  while  the  English  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  elder  son,  as  rightful  heir.  In  the 
wars  which  took  place  during  this  quarrel, 
we  find  Mr.  Chve,  afterwards  Lord  Clive, 
gaining  great  renown.  By  secrecy  and 
expedition,  he  obtained  possession  of  the 
enemy's  city,  before  his  coming  was  known ; 
and,  soon  after,  he  defeated  him  and  his 
French  allies,  in  an  open  battle,  in  1752. 

37.  In  1756,  the  Nabob  of  Bengal  took 
Calcutta,  and  brutally  confined  a  hundred 
and  forty-six  prisoners  in  so  small  a  dun- 
geon, that  only  twenty-two  were  found 
alive  in  the  morning,  the  others  being  suf- 
focated. Clive  repeatedly  defeated  him, 
with  only  a  handful  of  troops,  especially 
at   Plassey,   in    1757.     The    consequence 

What  of  commerce  during  the  last  century? 
3^.  How  was  the  trade  of  the  English  assisted  ? 
36.  What  of  the  contention  for  the  Mogul 
throne  ?    Lord  CUve  ?    37.  What  did  the  Nabob 


was,  the  reduction  of  l  considerable  part 
of  the  province  of  Bengal,  and  an  acces- 
sion of  reputation  and  influence  to  the 
Company,  all  over  Hindoostan. 

38.  A  new  enemy  soon  arose,  who  en 
deavored  to  extirpate  the  Company ;  this 
was  Hyder  Ally,  assisted  by  French  offi- 
cers. In  1780,  he  fell  unexpectedly  on 
their  possessions,  with  an  army  one  hun- 
dred thousand  strong,  and  gained  several 
advantages  ;  but  he  was  defeated  next  year, 
by  Sir  Eyre  Coote.  Tippoo  Saib,  the  son 
of  Hyder  Ally,  strengthened  himself,  and 
endeavored  to  carry  on  the  contest;  but 
Lord  Cornwallis  penetrated  into  the  heart 
of  his  dominions,  invested  and  took  his 
capital,  Seringapatam,  and  Tippoo  himself 
was  slain  in  its  defence. 

39.  The  Company  have  not  only  great 
mercantile  transactions,  but  they  also  pos- 
sess actual  territory  as  large  as  half  Europe. 
Their  trade  also  is  great  with  the  Spice 
Islands;  and  with  China  especially,  for 
tea,  which  is  become  a  necessary  of  life 
for  almost  every  individual  in  England,  as 
well  as  the  United  States. 

40.  I  come  now  to  a  mention  of  the 
progress  of  commerce  in  our  own  country. 
Scarcely  were  we  freed  from  our  allegi- 
ance to  Great  Britain,  than  our  commercial 
enterprise  and  resources  began  to  develope 
themselves.  Our  ships  began  to  penetrate 
to  the  most  distant  seas,  and  to  bring  home 
with  them  the  produce  of  every  clime.  It 
soon  became  a  common  thing  for  an  Ameri- 
can merchantman  to  make  a  voyage  round 
the  world,  starting  from  some  port  in  the 
United  States,  going  round  Cape  Horn  to 
the  north-west  coast  of  America,  taking  in 
furs,  sailing  to  China,  and  going  thence 
with  tea,  &c.  to  the  ports  of  Europe. 

41.  Various  causes  have  contributed  to 


of  Bengal  do  in  1756  ?  Was  he  defeated  by  Clive  ? 
What  was  the  consequence.?  What  of  Hyder 
Ally  ?  Tippoo  Saib  ?  Was  he  slain  ?  39.  What 
is  the  state  of  the  Company  ?    40.  What  of  com 


172 


B00&    OF    COMMERCE. 


direct  the  attention  of  a  large  portion  of 
our  population  to  commercial  pursuits. 
With  a  sea-coast  two  thousand  miles  in 
extent,  and  indented  with  many  fine  har- 
bors, it  was  natural  that  many  of  the  in- 
habitants should  betake  themselves  to  the 
sea  for  a  subsistence.  Excellent  timber 
for  ship-building  being  likewise  abundant, 
seemed  to  hold  out  another  temptation  to 
a  great  portion  of  the  people. 

42.  Near  the  shores  of  the  northern 
states,  and  on  the  adjacent  banks  of  New- 
foundland, are  fishing  stations,  unsurpassed 
by  any  in  the  world.  Fishing  is  conse- 
quently a  lucrative  employment,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  capital  invested,  and  constitutes 
the  occupation  of  many  of  the  inhabitants 
of  those    states.      The  fishermen    having 


merce  in  our  own  country?  41.  What  causes 
have  contributed  to  direct  the  attention  of  our 
population  to  commercial  pursuits?    42.   What 


become  accustomed  to  a  seafaring  life,  and 
acquired  the  requisite  skill  and  knowledge, 
soon  pass  into  larger  vessels,  destined  for 
more  distant  and  perilous  voyages. 

43.  The  state  of  the  world,  for  several 
years  subsequent  to  the  commencement  of 
the  French  revolution,  offered  great  en- 
couragement to  the  commercial  enterprise 
of  the  country.  While  almost  every  other 
power  was  engaged  in  war,  the  United 
States  were  neutral ;  their  vessels  navigat- 
ed the  ocean  in  safety,  and  were  employed 
to  carry,  from  port  to  port,  the  commodi- 
ties of  those  nations  which  were  at  war. 
Our  commercial  prosperity  is  now  estab- 
lished on  an  enduring  basis.  The  blow 
that  destroys  it,  can  be  given  alone  by  oui 
own  hands. 


of  our  fishing  statioi^'  43.  Our  commercial  pro» 
perity  ? 


173 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


Admiralty,  courts  of,  erected  in  England,  1837,in- 
corporated  1768. 

Africa,  one  of  the  great  land  sections  of  the  earth, 
the  ancient  Lybia,  received  its  modern  name  from 
that  of  a  small  province  on  its  northern  coast,  of 
which  Carthage  was  the  capital.  Area  about  elev- 
en millions  of  square  miles ;  and  in  proportion  to 
extent  and  geographic  position,  the  least  habitable 
part  of  the  earth. 

Air  Balloons,  invented  by  Gusmac,  a  Jesuit,  in  1729, 
and  revived  m  France,  by  Montgolfier,  1782,  and 
first  sent  up  at  Paris,  August  27th ;  introduced  into 
England  by  Mr.  Lunardi,  who  ascended  from  Moor- 
fields,  September  15th,  1784.  Mr.  Blanchard  and 
Mr.  Jefferies  went  from  Dover  to  Calais  in  about 
two  hours,  January  7th,  1785.  Since  the  first  as- 
cension m  France,  Garneriii,  Blanchard,  and  otliers, 
have  made  familiar  the  phenomena  of  this  once  as- 
tonishing performance. 

Air  Guns,  invf  jted  1646. 

Air  Pumps,  invented  by  Otto  Gnirick,  m  1654. 

Albany,  city  of  the  United  States,  and  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  N.  York ;  founded  by  the  Dutch  about  1612. 

Alexandria,  city  of  the  United  States,  in  the  District 
of  Columbia ;    taken  by  the  British  on  the  30th  of 
,     August,  and  evacuated  by  tiiem  on  the  6th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1814. 

Algebra,  or  the  Arithmetic  of  Symols,  invented,  it  is 
supposed,  in  India,  was  introduced  into  Europe 
about  A.  D.  1300,  by  the  Saracens  of  Spain.  Had 
gained  extensive  use  in  1500. 

Alliance,  Holy,  a  treaty  called  the  Holy  League,  form- 
ed at  Paris,  September  26th,  1815,' between  Alex- 
ander, emi>eror  of.  Russia,  Francis  I.  emperor  of 
Austria,  and  Frederick  William  HI.  king  of  Prus- 
sia, as  the  contracting  parties  avowed,  "  for  the  ! 
protection  of  religion,  [)eace,and  justice,  &c."  In  ' 
1817,  the  kings  of  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway,  j 
the  Nether  hind.-,  and  the  Swiss  Cantons,  acceded  \ 
to  t.!ns  compact.  ! 

Alum,  fir&t  discovered  at  Rocha  in  Syria,  A.  I).  1300;  j 
in  'I'uscany,  1460;  first  made  to  perfection  in  Eng-  | 
land,  1608,  discovered  in  Ireland,  October  22d,  i 
1757;    in  Anglesia,  1790.  j 

America,  or  as  called  relatively  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  \ 
and  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa  and  Europe,  \ 
•'  Western  Continent,"  was  supposed  to  have  been  j 
first  discovered  from  Europe,  by  the  Normans  who  i 
reached  some  of  the  shores  of  Labrador  or  New-  ■ 
foundland,  about  A.  D.  1000.  Those  early  discov-  i 
eries  were,  however,  forgotten,  and  left  the  glory  j 
undiminished,  to  Columbus,  who  reached  the  West 
Indian  Archipelago,  in  consequence  of  a  persevering  j 
determination  to  solve  a  problem,  previously  and  | 
profoundly  laid  down.  This  event  took  place  Oc- 
tober 11,  1492.  i 

Annapolis,  city  of,  capital  of  Maryland,  founded  1692;  I 
made  the  seat  of  the  General  Assembly  of  Maryland, 
1699. 


Antwerp,  city  of,  or  as  the  French  write  the  name, 
Anvers,  first  noticed  in  history,  A.  D.  517.  This 
city  affords  a  most  remarkable  instance  of  the  vi- 
cissitudes of  commerce.  In  the  middle  ages,  Ant- 
werp became  the  great  emporium  of  the  trade  and 
manufactmres  of  the  Netherlands,  and  as  late  as 
1568,  was  supposed  to  contain  200,000  inhabitants, 
but  as  manufactures  became  encouraged  in  Great 
Britain,  the  consequence  of  Antwerp  declined,  and 
it  does  not  contain  at  present  above  60,000  people. 

Archangel,  in  Russia,  the  most  important  seaport  in 
the  world  in  so  high  latitude.  The  English  first 
reached  it  round  the  North  Cape  of  Europe  in  1553. 
It  was  then  the  only  port  of  Russia. 

Arithmetic,  by  the  Arabian  figures,  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Saracens  of  Spain,  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  of  the  christian  era. 

Baffin's  Bay,  separating  Greenland  from  North  Ameri- 
ca, discovered  by  captain  Baffin,  in  1622. 

Bahama,  islands  of,  discovered,  1629;  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  British,  1718;  much  injured  by  a 
storm,  October,  1796;  and  again,  July  22d,  1801. 

Baize  manufacture  first  introduced  into  England,  at 
Colchester,  1660. 

Baltimore,  city  of  the  United  States,  in  Maryland,  on 
a  small  bay  of  Patapsco  river,  founded  1729,  is  ex- 
tremely well  situated  for  commercial  connexions 
with  the  valley  of  Ohio ;  it  commands  the  trade  of 
Maryland ;  more  than  one  half  of  that  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  a  part  of  New  York. 

Bark,  Jesuit,  virtue  of  discovered  1500;  brought  to 
Europe  1650. 

Barometers  invented  1626;  wheel  barometers  con- 
trived, 1668;  phosphoric,  1675;  pendant,  1695; 
marine,  1700. 

Bermuda  Isles,  discovered  1527;  settled  1612;  most 
destructive  hurricane  swept  over,  July  26th,  1813. 

Blankets  first  made  in  England  1340. 

Bombs,  first  invented  at  Venloo,  and  used  in  the  siege 
of  Wachtendonch,  1588;  first  used  in  the  service 
of  France,  1634. 

Bomb-vessels,  first  invented  in  France,  1681. 

Bombay,  taken  from  the  Portuguese  by  the  English, 
1661 ;  nearly  destroyed  by  fire,  and  many  lives  lost, 
February  27th,  1803. 

Books,  in  the  present  form,  were  invented  by  Attains, 
king  of  Pergamus,  887;  the  first  supposed  to  be 
written  in  Job's  time;  30,000  burnt  by  order  of 
Leo,  761 ;  a  very  large  estate  given  for  one  on  Cos- 
mography, by  king  Alfred;  were  sold  from  10/.  to 
30/.  a  piece,  about  1400;  the  first  printed  one  was 
tlie  A'^ulgate  edition  of  the  Bible,  1462;  the  second 
was  Cicero  de  Officiis,  1466;  Cornelius  Nepos  pub- 
lished at  Moscow,  being  the  first  classical  book 
printed  in  Russia,  April  29th,  1762;  books  to  the 
number  of  200,000,  burnt  at  Constantinople,  by  dia 
order  of  Leo  I.,  476 ;  above  4,194,412  volumes  were 
in  the  suppressed  monasteries  of  France,  in  1790, 
2,000,000  were  on  Theology,  the  manuscripts  were 


174 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


26,000;    in  the  city  of  Paris  alone  were  808,120 
volumes.  * 

Boston,  in  Massachusetts,  founded  1630 ;  port  of,  shut 
()y  order  of  the  British  government,  the  first  act  of 
violence  which  led  to  the  subsequent  revolution, 
1774;  besieged  by  the  Americans  1775;  evacuated 
by  the  British  array  March  17th,  1776. 

Botany-bay,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  New  Holland. 
Here  the  first  vessel  laden  with  colonists  from  Great 
Britain  arrived  20th  January,  1788,  and  made  the 
depot  of  convicts  from  that  country. 

Brazil,  ea.stern  and  central  part  of  South  America, 
discovered  by  Cabral,  24th  April,  1.500  ;  1504,  first 
civilized  settlement  on,  made  by  Amerigo  Vespucci. 

Bread,  made  from  the  flower  of  gramineous  fruits,  dis- 
covered in  very  early  ages,  but  not  made  with  yeast 
by  the  English,  until  1650. 

Bread,  fruit,  first  introduced  into  the  West-Indies,  by 
Capt.  Bligh,  January,  1793. 

Buckles  were  invented  about  1680. 

Cables,  a  method  of  making  them  invented,  by  which 
20  men  are  enabled  to  do  the  work  of  200.  The 
machine  is  set  in  motion  by  sixteen  horses,  for  the 
cable  is  of  the  dimensions  of  the  largest  ships,  1792. 

Calcutta,  city  of  Indostan,  on  the  Hoogly,  outlet  of  the 
Ganges,  formerly  an  insignificant  place,  was  taken 
by  the  English,  1689;  besieged  in  it  1757,  and  tak- 
en ;  when  146  persons  were  enclosed  in  a  prison, 
called  "The  Black  Hole,"  of  whom  123  perished 
in  a  few  hours.  It  is  now  the  first  city  in  Asia, 
containing  at  least  80,000  houses,  and  500,000  in- 
habitants, composed  of  Europeans,  Hindoos,  Chi- 
nese, &c. 

Calico,  first  imported  into  England,  1631 ;  first  made 
in  Lancashire,  1772 ;  calico-printing  and  the  Dutch 
loom,  first  used  in  England,  1676. 

California,  discovered  by  Cortes,  1543 ;  explored  more 
extensively,  1684 ;  coast  of,  explored  bv  la  Perouse, 
1786. 

Canada,  discovered  by  Cabot,  1499 ;  explored  by  the 
French,  1508,  1594',  and  1534;  settled,  1540;  Que- 
bec built,  1603;  taken  first  by  England,  1628,  but 
restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain ; 
invaded  and  conquered  by  Great  Britain,  in  1759; 
formally  ceded  by  France,  1763.  This  country  has 
Ijeen  twice  unsuccessfully  invaded  from  the  United 
States  since  the  revolution  of  1775. 

Canals. — The  first  regular  chain  of  artificial  water  in- 
ter-communication, of  which  history  has  transmitted 
to  us  the  record,  was  that  between  the  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea.  This  canal  route  was  examined  with 
great  care  by  the  French  engineers,  and  several  por- 
tions found  in  1798,  in  such  a  state  of  preservation 
as  only  to  demand  cleansing. 

Canals  in  tlie  United  States  commenced  in  Massachu- 
setts. The  company  formed  to  construct,  what  is 
now  called  the  Middlesex  canal,  was  incorporated 
1709;  commenced  the  work,  1790,  length,  29  3-4 
miles,  and  entire  fall,  107,  by  locks;  24  feet  wide, 
witli  four  feet  water. 

The  greatest,  however,  of  all  works  of  this  nature,  yet 


exftcuted  m'Smenca,  are  the  two  great  canals 
New  York.  The  western  canal  from  the  Hudson 
river  to  Lake  Erie,  was  first  suggested  by  Mr.  Gou 
verneur  Morris,  about  1803 ;  surveys  were  directed 
by  a  resolution  of  the  legislature  of  New  York,  in 
furtherance  of  this  project,  1808;  first  board  of 
commissioners  organised,  1810,  consisting  of  Gou- 
verneur  Morris,  Stephen  Van  Rens*ialaer,  De  Witl 
Clinton,  Simeon  De  Witt,  William  North,  Thomas 
Eddy,  and  Peter  B.  Porter.  Law  authorising  tlie 
actual  survey  of  the  ground,  pas.<ed  April  17th,  1816: 
this  great  work  was  cominenred,  July  4th,  1817, 
rompletcd,  and  tlu;  water  of  Lake  Erie  let  into  it, 
October  26tli,  182.'},  employing  8  years  and  141 
days.  Tlic  coinpleiion  of  the  Northern,  or  Lake 
Chainplain  Canal,  preceded  that  of  Erie,  and  both 
taken  togcdifr  ronsuinniates  tlio  inland  communica- 
tion betucffi  tlio  (ircat  Bay  of  Hudson,  and  tiia 
Bui^iri  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Canary  Isles  discovered,  1344 ;  explored  1393. 

Candles,  of  tallow,  so  great  a  luxury  in  England,  that 
splinters  of  wood  were  used  for  light,  A.  D.  1300 — 
no  idea  of  wax  candles  until  long  afterwards. 

Candle-light  introduced  into  churches  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  274. 

Cape  de  Verd  Islands  discovered,  1447. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  discovered,  1487;  planted  by 
Holland,  1651 ;  taken  by  the  British,  1795;  again 
January  8th,  1806,  and  definitely  ceded  to  Great 
Britain,  1814. 

Cape  Horn  first  sailed  round,  1616:  Straits  discover- 
ed, 1643. 

Carriages  first  introduced  into  Vienna,  1515;  inti> 
London,  1580. 

Charlestown,  (Massachusetts)  burnt  by  the  British ^ 
June  17,  1775. 

Charleston,  South  Carolina,  surrendered  to  the  Brit- 
ish forces,  May  4,  1780. 

Charleston,  South  Carolina,  founded  and  made  the 
seat  of  government  of  Carolina,  1680. 

Cherries  brought  to  Rome,  by  Luculhis,  70;  apricots 
were  first  introduced  into  England,  from  Epirus; 
peaches  from  Persia;  the  finest  plums  from  Damas- 
cus and  Armenia;  pears  and  figs  from  Greece  and 
Egypt;  citrons  from  Media;  pomegranates  firoiu 
Carthage,  about  114  years  before  Christ. 

Chimnies  first  inU'oduced  into  buildings  in  England, 
1200;  only  in  the  kitchen,  or  large  hall,  smoky; 
where  the  family  sat  round  a  large  stove,  the  funnel 
of  which  passed  tln-ough  the  ceiling,  1300. 

Chinaware,  made  in  England,  at  Chelsea,  in  1752; 
and  in  several  parts  of  England,  in  1760 ;  by  Mr 
Wedgewood,  1762;  at  Dresden,  in  Saxony,  1706. 

China,  first  voyage  to,  from  the  United  States,  1784; 
China  porcelain  first  s^ken  of  in  history,  1591. 

Chocolate,  introduced  into  Europe^  from  Mexico, 
1520. 

Cinnamon  trade  first  began  by  the  Dutch,  1506;  but 
had  been  known  in  the  time  of  Augustus  Caesar,  and 
long  before. 

Circumnavigatois  — ^The  first  was  Magellan,  or  rather 


4 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 


175 


by  his  fleet,  as  he  was  himself  slain  on  the  voyage, 
lo20;  Groalva,  1527;  Alvaradt,  1537;  Mendana, 
1567;  Su  Francis  Drake,  1577;  Cavendish,  1586; 
Lemaire,  1615;  Quires,  1625;  Tasman,  1642; 
Cowley,  1683;  Dampier,  1689;  Cooke,  1708; 
-Clipperton  and  Sherlock,  1719;  Anson,  1740;  By- 
ron, 1764;  Wallis,  1766;  Cook,  1768,  1772, 1776; 
continued  by  King,  1780 ;  and  since  by  Fortlocke, 
1788;  Bougainville,  1766;  La  Peyrouse,  1782; 
D'Entrecasteux,  1791. 


[  Copper,  first  imported  from  Virginia,  October,  1730. 
I  Copper  money  first  coined  in  Scotland  by  order  of  par* 
j  liament,  1466;  in  Ireland,  1399;  in  France,  1580; 
j  in  England,  the  first  legal,  1689.  Tradesmen's 
I  tokens,  or  half  pence,  were  coined  in  1672;  penny 
I  pieces  first  issued  July  26,  1797 ;  half  pence  on  the 
!  same  principle,  issued  January,  1800. 
j  Copper  is  found  native  in  the  United  States,  near  the 
1  south  side  of  Lake  Superior,  and  in  some  other 
jj  _  places. 


Circumnavigators  of  the  United  States,  the  first  ship    Cow-pox,  inoculation  by,  as  a  security  against  the 


with  which  this  was  performed,  returned  to  Boston,  i 
in  December,  1790.  I 

G)als  discovered  near  New-Castle,  1234;  first  dug  at  i 
New-Castle,  by  a  charter  granted  the  town,  by 
Henry  III.;  first  used,  1280;  dyers,  brewers,  &c.  ' 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  Ijegan  to  use  sea-coal  for  j 
fire,  in  1350.  i 

Coal,  in  the  United  States,  is  found  in  great  abun- ! 
dance  on  both  sides  of  the  Appalachian  mountains.  • 
A  coal-mine  near  Pittsburg,  took  fire,  and  burned 
many  years;  the  fire  was  finally  extinguished  by  the 
incumbent  earth  and  rocks  falling  into  the  cavity. 

Coffee,  first  brought  into  England  by  Nathaniel  Cono- 
pius,  a  Cretan,  who  made  it  his  common  beverage, 
at  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1641 ;  first  brought  to 
Marseilles,  1644. 

Coffee-trees  were  conveyed  from  Mocha  to  Holland,  in 
1616 ;  and  carried  to  the  West-Indies  in  the  year 
1726;  first  cultivated  at  Surinam  by  the  Dutch, 
1718;  its  culture  encouraged  in  the  plantations,  1732. 

Coin — silver,  coined  at  Rome,  269  before  Christ;  be- 
fore then  brass  money  was  only  used ;  coin  first  used 
in  Britain,  25  years  before  Christ. 

The  Mint  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
established  1793,  issued  gold  and  silver  coin; 
the  cop|)er  had  been  delivered  before.  The  gold 
coins  are  eagles,  half  eagles,  and  quarter  eagles. 
The  first  is  exactly  five  and  forty  shillings,  English 
money,  or  ten  dollars,  American  coin.  The  dollars 
are  coined  in  the  same  divisions  of  half  and  quarter 
dollai's,  which  makes  the  course  of  exchange  simple ; 
•.IS  ten  quarter  dollars  make  the  quarter  eagle,  ten 
half  dollars  the  half  eagle,  and  ten  dollars  the  eagle,  j 
■  There  is,  besides,  one  more  silver  coin,  which  is 
called  a  dime,  and  is  the  tenth  part  of  a  dollar. 
The  copper  coin  is  called  a  cent,  and  is  the  tenth 
part  of  a  dime. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes,  a  gigantic  brazen  statue  set  up  at 
Rhodes,  about  ate.  C.  300;  thrown  by  an  earth- 
quake, 234 ;  lay  on  the  ground  nearly  900  years, 
and  was  finally  sold  by  the  Saracens  when  they  took 
the  island  of 'Rhodes,  A.  D.  672.  The  metal  was 
supposed  to  have  weighed  720,000  lbs. 

Compass,  or  the  polarity  of  magnetised  iron,  one  of  the 
greatest,  and  as  to  the  date  of  its  discovery,  most 
uncertain  of  human  improvements.  There  is,  how- 
ever, good  evidence  to  prove  that  the  mariner's 
compass  was  in  use  in  Europe  as  early  as  A.  D. 
1180;  variation  first  observed  by  Columbus  and  hia 
companions,  1492 ;  its  dip,  about  1576. 


small-pox,  introduced  into  England,  by  Dr.  Jenner, 

Croisade,  or  crusade,  expeditions  undertaken  from 
'  Europe  with  the  avowed  intention  to  recover  the 
i  Holy  Land  from  the  Mahometans.  The  first  was 
!  undertaken  from  France,  1096.  The  second  was 
I  undertaken  in  1147;  the  third  in  1188;  the  fourth 
'  in  1203;  the  fifth  in  1227;  the  sixth  in  1248,  and 
i      seventh  in  1270. 

i  Cronstadt,  city  of  Russia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva, 
j      built  by  Peter  the  Great,  1704. 
I  Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492 ;    taken 
I      possession  of  by  the  Spaniards,  1511 ;   invaded  by 
i      the  British,  1762,  and  Havana  taken;   given  up  to 

Spain  1763. 
Custom-house,  London,  first  built,  1559;  burnt  down 
1814;   rebuilt,  and  opened  for  business,  1817. 
j  Cypher,  or  the  Arabic  numerical  figures,  introduced 

into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Spain,  in  813. 
Dartmoor,  England,  depot  at  for  prisoners,  at  which, 
April  8th,  1815,  seven  American  prisoners  vi^ere 
massacred  and  thirty  wounded. 
Davis's  Straits,  discovered  1585. 
Delft  earthenware  first  made  at  Faenza  1450. 
Diamonds  first  polished  and  cut  at  Bruges,  1489. 
Diamond  mines  discovered  in  Brazil,  1730;    that  at 
Coulour  in  the  East-Indies,  1640 ;    that  at  Golcon- 
da,  in  1584;  one  sent  from  Brazil  for  the  court  of 
Portugal,  weighed  1680  carats,  or  twelve  ounces 
and  a  half,  valued  at  224  millions  sterling.     Gover- 
nor Pitt's  weighed  127  carats,  and  106  after  cutting, 
and  sold  for  135,000/.  to  tlie  king  of  France.    Timt 
which  belonged  to  Aureng  Zebe  weighed  793  caratB. 
The  Mogul's  weighed  279  carats,  worth  779,244/ 
The  grand  duke  of  Tuscany's  weighed  13.9  carats. 
Dieu  et  mon  droit,  first  used  as  a  motto  by  Richard  I. 

on  a  victory  over  the  French,  1194. 
Distaff"  spinning  first  introduced  into  England  by  Bo- 

navera,  an  Italian,  1505. 
Distilling  first  practised  in  Spain  by  the  Moors,  1150. 
Distillation  of  spirituous  liquors  began  in  the  12th 

century.     In  Ireland  in  1590. 
Docks,  London,  the  first  stone  of,  laid  June  26,  1802; 

opened  January  30,  1805. 
Earthen  vessels  first  made  by  the  Romans  715  before 
Christ;  the  first  made  in  Italy  1710;  the  present 
improved  kind  began  in  1763,  by  Mr.  Wedgewood. 
Eddystone  light-hr.use,  near  Plymouth,  England,  first 
built,  1696;  blown  down,  November  26,  1703;  re- 
built,  1706;  burnt  down,  Deceml)er,  1755;  rebuilt 


176 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


October,  1759;  again  burnt  down,  1770;  rebuilt 
1774. 

Electricity,  first  idea  of,  given  by  two  globes  of  brim- 
stone, 1467;  electric  spark  discovered  at  Leyden, 
1746;  first  known  it  would  fire  spirits,  1756;  that 
of  the  aurora  borealis  and  of  lightning  in  1769. 

Engraving  on  metal  plates,  first  known  in  Europe  ate. 

C.  504,  by  a  map  on  brass  brought  from  Qonia  by 
Anaxagoras  of  Samos;  and  yet  it  was  not  until  A. 

D.  1423,  that  impressions  were  taken  on  paper  from 
engraved  plates;  the  art  of  taking  impressions  from 
engravings  on  copper  as  now  used,  1511 ;  in  mezzo- 
tinto,  and  improved  by  prince  Rupert,  of  Palatine, 
1648;    to  represent  wash,  invented  by  Barable,  a 

.  >  Frenchman,  1761;  crayon  engraving  invented  at 
Paris  by  Bonnet,  1769. 

Engraving  on  wood  invented  in  Flanders,  1423;  re- 
vived by  Alb.  Durer,  151 1 ;  on  glass  invented  1799, 
at  Paris,  by  Boudier. 

Etching  on  copper  invented  with  aqua  fortis,  1512. 

Excise,  the  first  used  in  England,  1643. 

Fairs  and  nmrkets  first  instituted  in  England  by  Al- 
fred, about  886.  The  first  fairs  took  their  rise  from 
wakes ;  when  the  number  of  people  then  assembled 
brought  together  a  variety  of  traders  annually  on 
these  days.  From  these  holidays  they  were  called 
feria,  or  fair. 

Falmouth,  seaport  of  Massachusetts,  taken  and  burnt 
by  the  British,  October  18th,  1775. 

Fish,  the  increase  of,  is  said  to  be  in  the  following 
proportion: — a  flounder  of  two  ounces  contains 
133,407  eggs  or  spawn;  herrings  weighing  from 
four  ounces  to  five  and  three-fourths,  from  21,285 
to  36,960;  lobsters,  from  fourteen  to  thirty-six 
ounces,  contain  21,699;  mackerel,  twenty  ounces 
454,061;  shrimps,  from  2,849  to  6,897;  smelts, 
from  14,411  to  38,278;  soal  of  five  ounces,  38,772; 
one  of  fourteen  ounces  and  a  half  contains  100,362; 
to  which  may  be  added  the  cod,  which  produces 
3,686,706. 

Florida,  discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spaniard,  m 
1512. 

Formosa,  in  the  Chinese  seas,  shook  off  the  Cliinese 
yoke,  and  massacred  10,000  Chinese,  driving  the 
remainder  into  the  woods  and  rocks  of  the  island, 
1788. 

Fruits  of  foreign  countries  first  brought  into  Italy,  70 
before  Christ,  and  flowers,  sundry  sorts  before  un- 
known, were  brought  into  England  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VII.  and  VIII.  from  about  1500  to  1578. 
Among  others  of  less  note,  the  musk  and  damask 
roses,  of  great  use  in  medicine,  and  tulips.  Several 
sorts  of  plum-trees  and  currant-plants;  also  safiron, 
woad,  and  other  drugs  for  dying,  attempted  to  be 
cultivated,  but  without  success. 

Gardening  introduced  into  England  from  the  Nether- 
lands, Ifrom  whence  vegetables  were  imported,  till 
1509;  the  pale  gooseberry,  with  salads,  garden 
roots,  cabbages,  &c.  brought  from  Flanders,  and 
iiops  from  Artois,  1520. 
Rye  and  wheat,  from  Tartary  and  Siberia,  where 


they  are  yet  indigenous ;  barley  and  oats  uniuiown, 
but  certainly  not  indigenous  in  England ;  rice  from 
Ethiopia;  buckwheat,  Asia;  borage,  Syria;  cress- 
es, Crete;  cauliflower,  Cyprus;  asparagus,  Asia; 
chervil,  Italy;  fennel,  Canary  Islands;  annise  and 
parsley,  Egypt ;  garlick,  the  East;  shallots,  Sibe- 
ria; horseradish,  China;  kidney-beans.  East  Indies; 
gourds, Astracan ;  lentils, France;  potatoes, Brazil ; 
tobacco,  America;  cabbage,  lettuce,  &c.,  Holland. 
Jassamine  comes  from  the  East  Indies ;  the  elder 
tree,  from  Persia ;  tlie  tulip,  from  Cappadocia;  tlie 
daffodil,  from  Italy;  the  lily,  from  Syria;  the  tul>e- 
rose,  from  Java  and  Ceylon;  the  carnation  and  pink, 
from  Italy,  &c.;  rananculus,  from  the  Alps;  apples, 
from  Syria;  apricots,  from  Epirus;  artichokes, 
from  Holland;  celery,  from  Flanders;  cherries, 
from  Pontus;  currants,  from  Zant;  damask  and 
musk  roses,  from  Damascus,  as  well  as  plums;  hops, 
from  Artois  and  France ;  gooseberries,  from  Flan- 
ders; gilliflowers,  carnations,  the  Provence  rose, 
&c.  from  Thoulouse,  in  France;  oranges  and  lem- 
ons from  Spain;   lieans  and  peas  from  Spain. 

Gas,  use  of,  introduced  in  London,  for  lighting  shops 
and  streets,  1814;  first  into  the  United  States,  at 
Baltimore,  1821. 

Gazettes,  of  Venetian  origin,  and  so  called  from  the 
price  being  gazetta,  a  small  piece  of  money;  the 
first  published  in  England,  was  at  Oxford,  JNovcn- 
ber  7,  1665. 

Georgium  Sidus  discovered  by  Herschel,  1781. 

Gibraltar  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by  the  Castiliana 
in  1463 ;  taken  by  Sir  George  Rooke,  July  23, 1704 ; 
besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  September   13,  1782, 

•  when  their  floating  batteries  were  burnt  l)y  red-hot 
balls  from  the  garrison,  commanded  by  Gen.  Elliott. 

Gilding  witii  leaf  gold  on  bole  ammoniac,  art  of,  in- 
vented by  Margaritime,  1273;   on  wood,  1680. 

Gipsies  quitted  Egypt  when  attacked  by  the  Turks  in 
1515,  and  wandered  over  almost  all  Europe. 

Glass,  the  art  of  making  it,  known  to  the  Romans  at 
least  before  79;  known  to  the  Chinese  about  200; 
introduced  into  England  by  Benedict,  a  monk,  674  j 
glass  windows  began  to  be  used  in  private  houses  in 
England,  1180;  glass  first  made  in  England  into 
bottles  and  vessels,  1557;  the  first  plate  glass  for 
looking  glasses  and  coach-windows,  made  at  Lam- 
Ijeth,  1673;,  in  Lancashire,  1773;  window  glass 
first  made  in  England,  1557. 

Grapes  brought  to  England  and  planted  first  at  Blax- 
hall,  in  Suffolk,  1552;  cultivated  in  Flanders,  1276. 

Guinea  coast  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  1482; 
slave  trade  commenced  here  by  Capt.  Hawkins,  ao 
Englishman,  1563.  He  was  assisted  with  a  sub- 
scription by  sundry  of  his  countrymen — sailed  from 
England  with  three  ships,  purchased  negroes,  sold 
them  at  Hispaniola,  and  returned  home,  richly  la- 
den with  hides,  sugar,  and  ginger. 

Guineas  were  first  coined,  1673,  from  gold  brought 
from  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

Gunpowder  invented,  1330;  first  made  m  England, 
1418;  first  used  in  Spain,  1344. 


IHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


177 


Guns,  great,  invented,  j.'LSO;  iised  by  the  Moors  at  the 
siege  of  Algesiras,  in  Spain,  in  1344;  used  at  the 
battle  of  Cressy,  in  1346;  when  Edward  liad  four 
pieces  of  cannon,  which  gained  him  the  battle;  they 
were  used  at  the  siege  of  Calais,  in  1347;  in  Den- 
mark, 1354;  at  sea  by  Venice  against  Genoa,  1377; 
first  used  in  Spain,  1406;  first  made  in  England  of 
brass,  1635;  of  iron,  1547;  invented  to  shoot  whales, 
1731 ;  first  used  in  England,  at  the  siege  of  Berwick, 
1405 ;  bombs  and  mortars  invented,  1634. 
Hackney  coaches   first   used,  twenty  in   number,  in 

London,  1625. 
Handkerchiefs  first  manufactured  at  Paisley,  in  Scot- 
land, 1748,  when  15,886/.  worth  were  made:  in  1784 
the  manufacture  yielded  above  164,385/. 
Hats  invented  at  Paris,  1404:    first  made  in  London, 

1510. 

hemp  and  flax  first  planted  in  England,  1533.     There 

are  180,0001b.  of  rough  hemp  used  in  the  cordage 

and  sails  of  a  first-rate  man  of  war.  | 

Herring  fishery,   first   practised   by  the   Hollanders, 

1164:  herring  pickling  first  invented,  1397. 
Hour  Glasses  were  invented  in  Alexandria,  240,  and 

introduced  at  Rome,  158  years  before  Christ. 
Hudson's  Bay  discovered  by  Capt.  Hudson,  1607. 
Indigo,  first  produced  in  Carolina,  1747:  cultivated  in 

the  open  air  at  Vaucluse,  in  France,  1808. 
Insurance  on  shipping  began  in  England,  1560. 
Insurance  offices  established  in  London,  and  its  vicini- 
ty, 1696. 
Insurance  policies  were  first  used  in  Florence  in  1523: 
first  society  established  at  Hanover,  1530:   that  at 
Paris,  1740. 
Interest  first  mentioned  as  legal,  1199,  at  10  per  cent. : 
in  1300,  at  20  per  cent. :  in  1558,  at  12  per  cent. : 
in  1571,  at  10  per  cent. :  in  1625,  at  8  per  cent. :  in 
1749,  the  funds  were  reduced  from  4  to  3  1-2  and  3 
per  cent. 
Iron  discovered  by  the  burning  of  mount  Ida,  1406 
before  Christ:  first  cast  in  England  at  Backstead, 
Sussex,  1544:  first  discovered  in  America,  in  Vir- 
ginia, 1715:  bullets  first  used  in  England,  1550. 
Italian  method  of  book-keeping,  published  in  Enjrland, 

1569.  " 

Jamaica  discovered  by  Columbus,  1494:    settled  by 
the  Spaniards,  1509:  plundered,  1595:  pillaged  by 
the  English,  1635:  taken  by  the  English,  May  7, 
1655. 
Jamestown,  first  capital  of  Virginia,  founded  1607. 
Japan    discovered,    1542:    visited    by   the    English, 

1612. 
Jenite,  a  new  mineral  discovered  in  the  island  of  Elba. 

1808. 
Kamtschatka  discovered  by  the  Russians,  173ft 
Knitting  stockings  invented  in  Spain,  about  1550. 
Knives  first  made  in  England,  1563. 
Lace,  Flanders,  more  valuable  tiian  gold — one  ounce 
of  fine  Flanders  thread  has  been  sold  in  London,  for 
41.     Such  an  ounce  made  into  lace  may  be  sold  for 
40/.,  which  is  ten  times  the  price  of  standard  gold, 
iveight  for  weight.  jj 

12 


Lamp  for  preventing  explosions  by  fire-damp  in  coal 
mines,  invented  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  1815. 

Lanterns  invented  by  king  Alfred,  890. 

Lawns  and  thread  gauze  were  in  1784,  manufactured 
at  Paisley  to  the  value  of  164,385/.  16s.  6.5d. 

Leaden  pipes  for  conveying  water  invented,  1236. 

Letters  invented  by  Memnon,  the  Egyptian,  1822  <je- 
fore  Christ. 

Linen  first  made  in  England,  1253:  the  luxurious  wore 
linen,  but  the  generality  woollen  shirts.  Table  linen 
very  scarce  in  England,  1386. 

Lithographic  printing,  art  of,  first  brought  into  Eng- 
land, 1801. 

Loadstone,  polar  attraction  of,  known  in  France  be- 
fore 1180. 

Log-line  in  navigation  used,  1570. 

Logvv^ood  first  cut  in  the  bay  of  Honduras  and  Cam- 
peachy  by  tlie  English,  1662. 

Looking-glasses  made  only  at  Venice,  1300. 

Looms,  the  power-loom  invented  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cart- 
wright,  a  clergyman  of  Kent,  in  England,  1787. 

Lotteries,  the  first  mentioned  by  historians  for  sums  of 
money,  1630:  established  1693. 

Madagascar  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  1500. 

Madeira,  island  of,  discovered  1344  and  1418. 

Magellan,  straits  of,  discovered  1520. 

Magnifying  glasses  invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  1260. 

Malt  liquor  used  in  Egypt  450  before  Christ. 

Mercator's  charts  invented  1556. 

Microscopes  first  used,  1621:  the  double  ones,  1624: 
solar  microscopes  invented,  1740. 

Money,  first  mentioned  as  a  medium  of  commerce  in 
the  23d  chapter  of  Genesis,  when  Abraham  purchas- 
ed a  field  as  a  sepulchre  for  Sarah,  in  the  year  of  the 
world,  2139:  fiist  made  at  Argos,  894  before  Christ: 
has  increased  eighteen  times  its  value  from  1290  to 
1640:  and  twelve  times  its  value  from  1530  to 
1800. 

Mortars  for  bombs  first  made  in  England,  1543. 

Moscow  founded  1156:  entered  by  the  French,  Sep- 
tember 14,  1812:  set  on  fire  in  500  different  places 
at  once,  by  order  of  the  Russian  governor,  and  three 
fourths  of  the  city  destroyed  two  days  after :  evacu- 
ated bv  the  French,  and  re-entered  by  the  Russia-ns, 
October  22,  1812. 

Mtilberry  trees  first  planted  in  England,  1609:  in  the 
English  provinces  of  North  America,  about  1750, 
for  cultivating  silk. 
Musical  notes  as  now  used,  1330. 
Muskets  first  used  in  France  at  the  siege  of  Arra.*, 

1414:  in  general  use,  1521. 
Muslins  from  India,  first  in  England,  1670:  first  man- 
ufactured tliere,  1781. 
Needles  were  first  made  in  England  by  a  native  of  In- 
dia, 1545,  tlie  art  lost  at  his  death:  recovered  by 
Christopher  Greening,  in  1560,  who  was  settlecl 
with  Ws  three  children,  Elizabeth,  Johr ,  and 
Thomas,  by  Mr.  Damer,  ancestor  of  tlie  present  ear. 
of  Dorchester,  at  Long  Gredon,  in  Bucks,  where 
the  manufactory  has  been  carried  on  from  that  time 
to  tliis  present  day. 


178 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


New  style  first  introduced  into  Europe,  1582:  into 
Holland  and  the  protestant  states,  1700:  in  Eng- 
land, 1752. 

Newspaper,  first  published  in  England,  titled  the  En- 
glish Mercury,  July  28,  1588.  The  present  num- 
ber in  the  United  States  amounts  to  more  than  a 
thousand 

North  cast  passage  to  Russia  discovered,  1553. 

Notes  and  bills  fu'st  stamped,  1782. 

Nova  Zembla  discovered,  1553. 

Organs  brought  to  Europe  from  the  Greek  empire, 
were  first  invented  and  applied  to  religious  devotion 
in  chui'ches,  758. 

Otaheite,  or  George  III.'s  island,  discovered  June  18, 
1765. 

Owhy-he  island  discovered  1778,  where  Capt.  Cooke 
was  killed. 

Oxford  university,  founded  by  Alfred,  886. 

Paper  currency  established  in  America,  May  15, 
1775. 

Paper  money  first  used  in  America,  1740. 

Paper  made  of  cotton  was  in  use  in  1000:  that  of  lin- 
en rags,  in  1319:  the  manufacture  of,  introduced 
into  England  at  Dartford,  in  Kent,  1588 :  scarcely 
any  but  brown  paper  made  in  England,  till  1690: 
white  paper  first  made  in  England,  in  1690. 

Parchment  invented  by  king  Attains,  887. 

Patent  granted  for  titles,  first  used,  1844:  first  grant- 
ed for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  publishing  books, 
1591. 

Pearl-ashes  manufactory  first  set  up  in  Ireland,  1783. 

Pearls,  artificial,  were  invented,  1686. 

Pendulmns  for  clocks  invented,  1656. 

Pens  for  writing  were  first  made  from  quills  in  635. 

Peru  conquered  by  Pizarro,  1533. 

Pistols  fii'st  used  by  the  cavalry,  1544. 

Pitch  and  tar  made  from  pit-coal,  discovered  at  Bris- 
tol, 1779. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  the  way  first  fonnd  out  for  taking  a 
likeness  in,  1470. 

Plate-glass  manufactory  established  at  Lancashire,  in 
1773:  first  in  France,  1688. 

Policy  of  insiurance  in  writing  first  used  at  Florence, 
1569. 

Potatoes  first  brought  to  England  from  America,  by 
Hawkins,  in  1563:  introduced  mto  Ireland  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  in  1586,  and  were  not  known  in 
Flanders  till  1650. 

Poiterv,  great  discoveiies  made  in  it  bv  Mr.  Wedge- 
wood,  1763. 

Printing  invented  by  J.  Faust,  1441:  first  made  public 
by  John  Gottenburgh,  of  Mentz,  1458:  wooden 
types  first  used,  1470:  brought  into  England  by 
William  Caxton,  1471,  who  had  a  press  in  West- 
minster Abbey  till  1494:  first  patent  granted  for  it, 
1591:  first  introduced  into  Scotland,  1509:  first 
used  at  Lyons,  1488:  first  set  up  at  Constantinople, 
in  1784 :  printing  in  colors  invented,  1626. 

Pumps  invented,  1425. 

Quicksilver,  use  of,  discovered  in  refininff  silver  ore, 
1540. 


Rail  Roads,  first  used  near  Newcastle  upon  Tyne, 
about  1650. 

Rice  was  cultivated  in  Ireland  in  1585:  in  England, 
1600 :  had  its  first  cultivation  in  Soutli  Carolina,  br 
chance,  1702. 

Rum  imported  into  England  in  1789,  was  3,300,000 
gallons:  in  1796  there  were  imported  4,196,198 
gallons. 

Sail-cloth  first  made  in  England,  1590:  cotton  sail- 
cloth made  at  Baltimore  and  at  Patterson,  N.  J. 
and  brought  into  use  in  the  United  States,  1824. 

Saint  Helena  first  possessed  by  the  English,  1600. 

Saint  Lawrence  river  discovered  and  explored  by  tl>c 
French,  1508. 

Salem,  in  New  England,  settled,  1628. 

Salt  mines  in  Staftbrdshire  discovered,  1670:  rock 
salt  was  discovered  about  950:  in  Poland,  in  1289. 

Saltpetre  first  made  in  England,  1625, 

Savannah,  in  Georgia,  settled  1732. 

Sextant  invented  by  Tycho  Bralie,  in  1550. 

Sheep,  the  number  in  England  is  from  20  to  25  mil- 
lions.    The  value  of  their  wool,  3,200,000/. 

Ship. — The  first  seen  in  Greece  arri\4d  at  Rhodes 
from  Eg}'pt,  1485  before  Christ;  the  first  double- 
decked  one  built  in  England  was  of  1000  tons  bur- 
den, by  order  of  Henry  VII.  1509;  it  was  called 
tlie  Great  Harry,  and  cost  14,000/.;  Jaefore  this, 
twenty-four  gun  ships  were  tlie  largest  in  the  navy, 
and  these  had  no  port-holes,  the  guns  being  on  the 
upper  decks  only.  Port-holes  and  other  improve- 
ments were  invented  by  Decharges,  a  French  build- 
er at  Brest,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  1500;  there 
were  not  above  four  merchant  ships  of  120  tons 
burden,  before  1551. 

Ship-building,  the  art  of,  attributed  to  the  Egyptians, 
as  the  first  inventors,  the  first  ship  being  brought 
from  Egypt  to  Greece  by  Danaus,  1485  B.  C.  The 
first  ship  of  the  burden  of  800  tons  was  built  in 
England  in  1597. 

Shoeing  of  horses  first  introduced,  481. 

Shoes  of  the  present  fashion  first  worn  m  Ei/gland, 
1633. 

Signals  at  sea  first  devised  by  James  II.  1665. 

Silk,  wrought,  brought  from  Persia  to  Greece,  325  B. 
C. 

Soap  first  made  at  London  and  Bristol,  1524 

Speaking  trumpets  invented  by  Kircher,  u  Jesuit, 
1652. 

Spectacles  invented  by  Spina,  a  monk  of  Pisa,  1299. 

Steam  applied  to  the  pm-pose  of  inland  navigation  in 
America,  1810. 

Steel  may  be  made  three  hundred  times  dearer  than 
standard  gold,  weight  for  weight;  six  steel  wire 
springs  for  watch  pendulums  weigh  one  grain,  to 
the  artists,  Is.  6d.  each,  equal  to  21.  5s.  i  one  graia 
of  gold  only  2d. 

Stereotype  printing  invented  by  William  Ged,  a  gold- 
smith, of  Edinburgh,  1725. 

Stops  in  Literature,  introduced  1520 ;  Uie  colon  1580 ; 
semicolon  1599. 

Stucco  work  revived  by  D'Udine,  about  1500 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


179 


Sugar  first  mentioned  by  Paul  Eginetta,  a  physician, 
625;  produced  in  Sicily,  1148;  first  produced  in 
Madeira,  1419;  in  tlie  Canary  Islands,  1503;  car- 
ried to  tlie  West-Indies,  by  tlie  Portuguese  and 
Spaniards,  1510;  cultivated  at  Barbadoes,  1641; 
sugar  refining  first  discovered  by  a  Venetian,  1503; 
practised  first  in  England,  in  1569. 

Tanning  leather,  a  new  and  expeditious  method  in- 
vented, 1795. 

Tea  first  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  early  in  1591. 

Tea  destroyed  at  Boston  by  the  inhabitants,  1773. 

Telegraphs  invented,  1687;  put  into  practice  by  the 
French,  in  1794;  by  the  English,  Jan.  28,  1796. 

Telescopes  invented  by  Z.  Jansen,  a  spectacle  maker 
at  Middleburgh,  1590 ;  the  first  reflecting  one  made 
on  the  principles  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  1692. 

Thermometers  first  invented  by  Drebel,  a  Dutchman, 
1620 ;  improved  by  Reaumur,  1730,  and  by  Fahren- 
heit, 1749. 

Thread  first  made  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland,  in  1722. 

Ticonderoga  taken  by  the  English,  1759 ;  by  the  Pro- 
vincials, May  13,  1775. 

Tides,  the  first  theory  of,  by  Kepler,  1596. 

Tiles  first  used  in  England,  1246. 

Time  first  computed  from  the  Christian  era,  516;  in 
history,  784;  in  Spain,  1258;  in  Ai'ragon  and  Cas- 
tile, 1383;   in  Portugal,  1415. 

Time-measure  barometer  introduced  by  Scipio  Nasi- 
ca,  159 ;  king  Alfred's  time-keeper  was  six  large 
wax  tapers,  each  twelve  inches  long ;  as  tliey  burnt 
unequally,  owing  to  the  Avind,  he  invented  a  lantern 
made  of  wood  and  thin-scraped  plates  of  ox-horns, 
glass  being  a  great  rarity,  887.  T!ie  ancients  had 
Uiree  sorts  of  time  measures,  hour-glasses,  sun-dials, 
and  a  vessel  full  of  water  with  a  hole  in  its  bottom. 

Tin  found  in  Germany,  1241 ;  in  no  place  before  but 
in  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  in  Barbai7,  1640;  in 
India,  1740;   in  New  Spain.  1782. 

Toad,  a  live  oncfound  in  a  block  of  stone,  at  New- 
arK,  April  15,  1806;  another  found  alive,  in  the 
heart  of  an  oak  tree,  about  thirty  inches  in  diame- 
ter, at  Rainford,  Lancashire,  January,  1810. 

Tobacco  first  discovered  in  St.  Domingo,  in  1496; 
afterwards  by  the  Spaniards  in  Yutacan,  1520;  first 
brought  into  England,  1583;  allowed  to  be  cultivat- 
ed in  Ireland,  1779. 

Torture  abolished  in  Sweden,  by  order  of  the  king, 
1786;  in  Poland,  1776;  abolished  in  France  by 
edict,  August  25,  1780;  abolished  in  Spain,  Au- 
gust, 1814. 

Tournaments  began  in  170;  instituted  by  Henry,  em- 
peror of  Germany,  919. 

Tragedy,  the  first  acted  at  Athens,  on  a  wagon,  by 
Thespis,  585  before  Christ. 

Trajan's  pillar  erected  in  Rome,  114. 

Trinidad,  the  isle  of,  discovered,  1498;  taken  by  the 
English,  with  four  ships  of  the  line,  1797. 

Tripoli  reduced  by  admiral  Blake,  1655;  attacked 
four  times  by  the  United  States  squadron,  under 
commodore  Preble,  in  the  year  1804. 


Troy  built,  1480 ;  the  kingdom  of,  began  1446  before 
Christ;  destruction  of,  June  11, 1184  before  Christ. 

Trumpets  first  sounded  before  the  kings  of  England, 
by  order  of  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  790. 

Tulips  first  brought  into  England,  1578. 

Tunis  reduced  by  admiral  Blake,  1665;  taken  by  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  and  restored  to  its  king  thai 
had  been  banished,  1535. 

Tunnel  of  the  Tavistock  canal,  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
length,  and  in  some  parts  of  it,  more  than  four  bun 
dred  feet  below  the  surface,  completely  holed,  afte^ 
thirteen  years'  labor,  August  24,  1816. 

Turkeys  came  into  England,  1523. 

Turnpikes  first  legally  erected  in  England,  1663, 
yielded  in  1783,  about  508,000/. 

Types  of  wood  for  printing  used,  1470. 

Union  of  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland,  1603; 
of  the  two  kingdoms  attempted,  1604,  but  failed ; 
again  ditto,  1670;  carried  into  effect.  May  1, 1707, 
and  thence  the  island  is  called  Great-Britain ;  union 
of  Britain  and  Ireland  took  place,  Jan.  1,  1801. 

United  States. — Summary  statement  of  the  value  of 
the  Exports  af  the  Growth,  Produce,  and  Manufac- 
tures of  the  United  States,  during  the  year  com- 
mencing on  the  1st  day  of  October,  1831,  and  end- 
ing on  the  30th  day  of  September,  1832. 
THE  SEA. 

Fisheries — 

Dried  fish  or  cod  fisheries  $749,909 
Pickled  fish,  or  river  fisheries, 
herring,  shad,  salmon,  mack- 
erel 306,812 
Whale  and  other  fish  oil  1,009,728 
Spermaceti  oil  38,161 
Whalebone  186,595 
Spermaceti  candles                     267,332 

$2,558,533 

THE  FOREST. 

Skins  and  furs  691,909 

Ginseng  99,545 

Product  of  wood — 

Staves,  shingles,  boards 

and  hewn  timber  $1,522,053 
Other  timber  188,608 

Masts  and  spars  73,368 

Oak  bark  &  other  dye  52,944 
All  manufactures  of 

wood  312,678 

Naval  stores,  tar,  pitch, 
rosin,  &  turpentine  476,291 

Ashes,  pot  and  pearl       930,398 

3,556,340 


AGRICULTURE. 

Product  of  animals — 
Beef,  tallow,  hides, 

horned  cattle  774,087 

Butter  and  cheese        290,820 
Pork,  pickled  bacon, 

lard,  live  hogs        1,928,196 
Horses  and  mules         164,034 


4,347,794 


180 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


Sheep                            22,385 

Leather  and  morocco  skins 

Vegetable  food—              3,179,522 

not  sold  per  pound                    42,565 

Wheat                           93,500 

Printing  presses  and  type             22,558 

Flour                       4,880,623 

Musical  instruments                         4,952 

Indian  corn                  278,740 

Books  and  maps                            29,892 

Indian  meal                  480,035 

Paper  and  other  stationary           64,847 

Rye  meal                        75,392 

Paints  and  vai'nish                         24,611 

Rye,  oats,  and  otlier 

Vinegar                                             4,677 

small    grain    and 

Earthen  and  stone  ware                  6,833 

pulse                           78,447 

Fire  engines  and  apparatus             7,758 

Biscuit  or  ship  bread  255,735 

Manufactures  of  glass                   106,855 

Potatoes                         42,077 

tin                                                  3,157 

Apples                           15,314 

pewter  and  lead                              983 

Rice                         2,152,631 

marble  and  stone                          8,454 

8,352,494 

gold  and  silver  and  gold  leaf          653 

- 

11,532,016 

Gold  and  silver  coin                  1,410,941 

Toljacco 

5,999,759 

Artificial  flowers  and  jewelrj       14,852 

Cotton 

31,724,682 

Molasses                                            2,493 

All  other  agricultural  products — 

Trunks                                              5,314 

Flaxseed 

123,036 

Brick  and  lime                                3,502 

Hops 

25,448 

Domestic  salt                                  27,914 

Rfnwn  SiiOTfif 

11  232 

XJiVJWil    KPU^Cll 

IKft  PS-I/? 

Manufactured                              477,267 
Odier                                           358,181 

MANUFACTURES.            "'""^" 

Soap  and  tallow  candles 

701,184 

830,448 

T  ^otVlfki*     V\rkrttc   on/1    aVlrwia 

277,388 
169,039 

jLjeainer,  doois  ana  snoes 
Household  furniture 

^63,137,470 

Coaches  and  other  carriages 

45,277 

Vines  planted  in  Germany  and  North  Gaul,  276. 

Hats 

310,912 

Violins   invented   about   1477;     and   introduced    by 

Saddlery 

29,572 

Charles  II. 

Wax 

62,444 

Watches  invented  at  Nuremberg,  in  Germany,  1477; 

Spirits  from  grain,  beer,  ale 

first  used  in  astronomical  observations,  1500. — The 

and  porter 

127,583 

emperor  Charles  V.  was  the  first  who  had  any  thing 

Snuff  and  tobacco 

295,771 

that  might  be  called  a  watch,  though  come  call  it  a 

Lead 

5,483 

small  table  clock,  1530;   watches  first  brought  to 

Linseed   or    and   spirits   of 

England  fi-om  Germany,  1577;  spring  pocket  ones 

tiu-pent  ne 

33,304 

invented  by  Hooke,  1658 

Cordage 

13,863 

Water-mills  for  grinding  corn  were  invented  by  Beli- 

Iron,  pig,  bar,  and  nails 

65,979 

sarius,  while  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  Goths,  555. 

castings 

26,629 

The  ancients  parched  their  corn,  and  pounded  it  in 

manufactm-es  of 

120,222 

mortars ;  afterwards  mills  were  invented,  which  were 

Spirits  from  molasses 

38,221 

turned  by  men  and  beasts  with  great  labor ;  and  yet 

Sugar,  refined 

74,673 

Pliny  mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

Chocolate 

2,255 

Weights  and  measures  invented,  869  l)efore  Christ; 

Gunpowder 

96,023 

fixed  to  a  standard  in  England,  1257;  regulated. 

Copper  and  brass 

105,774 

1492. 

Medicinal  drugs 

130,5^38 

Whale  fishery,  the  first  by  the  Dutch,  1596;    by  the 

Cotton  piece  goods 

2,730,833 

English  at  Spitsbergen,  1598. 

Printed  or  colored       104,870 

Whalebone  found  by  the  English  ships  at  Cape  Bre- 

White                       1,052,891 

ton,  1521;  first  mentioned  brought  home  with  oil. 

Nankeens                             341 

1617. 

Twist  yarn  and  thread  12,618 

Whales  killed  at  Newfoundland  and  Iceland  for  their 

All  manufacnires  of       58,854 

oil  only,  1578;    the  use  of  their  bones  and  fins  not 

,229,574 

then  known,  consequently  no  stays  worn  hy  ladies. 

Cloth  and  thread 

1,570 

Woollen-cloth,  manufactures  of,  in  all  civilized  coun- 

Bags and  all  manufactures  of 

2,685 

tries,  and  in  very  remote  ages,  and  probably  of  linen 

Wearing  apparel 

80,803 

also. 

Coml)s  and  buttons 

124,305 

York,  Upper  Canada,  capitulated  to  the  Americans, 

Brushes 

4,754 

April  27,  1813. 

Billiard  tables 

1,310 

Zodiac,  signs  of  the,  invented  by  Anaximander,  547 

Umbrellas  and  parasols 

20,361 

B   C 

INDEX. 


A.gates 

Alabaster 

Alcohol 

Ale       -        - 

Allspice 

Almonds 

Alum    - 

Amber 

Ambergris 

Amethyst 

Amsterdam 

Anchovies     - 

Annotto 

Anthracite  Coal 

Antimony 

Antwerp 

Apples 

Arrack 

Arsenic  - 

Artificial  Pearls 

Assafcetida 

Axminster  Carpets    - 

Baltimore  Exchange 

Banks 

Barilla    - 

Barley 

Bazaars  - 

Beans 

Bears 

Beaver  Skins 

Beef 

Bell-Metal 

Beer 

Bill  of  Exchange 

Blankets 

Boats 

Bombazine 

Bone-lace 

Bonnets   - 

Bucks 


16 


Page 

Page 

69 

Book-keepmg      -"          -    . 

133 

58 

Box-wood      -           -            . 

-  98 

35 

Borrowstoness  Coal  Mine 

88 

81 

Brandy           -            .            -           , 

35 

25 

Brass        -           -           -            - 

-83 

19 

iBrazUWood 

100 

104 

Bricks      -            -            -            . 

118 

62 

Brimstone       -            -            -            . 

80 

107 

Bristles     -            -            -            - 

52 

69 

British  National  Debt 

143 

168 

!  Brocade    -            -            -            . 

-46 

16 

j  Brussels  Carpeting 

47 

100 

Buckram  -           -            -            - 

-  43 

90 

Buffaloes         ... 

-     124 

87 

Burgundy  Wine  -           -           - 

-  34 

169 

Butter             - 

.        13 

18 

37 

Caffila      -            -            -  '         - 

121 

87 

Calamine         -            -            - 

-        83 

65 

Calcutta  founded 

170 

101 

Calicoes           -            -            - 

-       42 

47 

Cambrics              .            -            - 

-42 

Camel's  Hair    -            -            - 

.       52 

137 

Camlets    -            -            -            - 

39 

135 

Camphor        -            -            -            . 

.      102 

101 

Canada  Fur  Trade 

51 

10 

Canals             -            -            - 

.      127 

137 

Canoes      -            -            .            - 

126 

13 

Cannel  Coal    -            -            - 

-       90 

144 

Caoutchouc            .            -            - 

102 

51 

Caravans 

-     120 

13 

Carrier  Pigeons      - 

131 

83 

Carpets            -            -            - 

-       47 

31 

Carron  Iron  Works 

79 

134 

Carthage         -            -            -            . 

.      147 

38 

Cassia        -            -            -       •     - 

25 

126 

Catching  Whales 

-     106 

■  39 

Cedar        -            -            -            - 

96 

46 

Ceylon  Pearl  Fishery  - 

-      64 

48 

Champagne  Wine 

34 

115 

Charlestown  Dry  Dock 

-     138 

183 


INDEX. 


Cheese        -           -           -           -  13 

Chestnut             -            -            -  -    96 

China  Ware             -            -            -  55 

Chinese  Junks  -             -           -  .  126 

Chintz      -               .           -            -  42 

Chocolate            -            -            -  -    30 

Chrysalisof  the  Silkworm  -           -  96 

Cider           .            .           -            .  31 

Cigars               -            -            -  -     110 

Cinnabar    -             -            .            -  74 

Cinnamon        -            -            -  -       25 

Citrons        -            -            -            -  19 

Civet                -            -            -  -        54 

Claret  Wine            -            -            -  34 

Cloves              -            -           -  -       25 

Coal            ...            .  88 

Cobalt               -            -            -  -      87 

Cochineal     -            -            -            -  100 

Cocoa-Nuts      -            -           -  -      20 

Cocoons  of  the  Silkworm    -           -  45 

Cod-fish            -            -           -  -      13 

Cod-fishery  -            -            -            -  14 

CoflTee               -           -            -  -     29 

Coin              -            -           -            -  144 

Coke 89 

Color  of  Wine          .           -            -  35 

Columbus          -            -           -  -    163 

Combs    -                   -            -            -  61 

Commerce,  importance  of         -  -       9 

History  of          -            -  145 

neglected  by  Romans  -    149 

ruined  by  Goths     -        -  150 

in  the  East         -        -  -   151 

desolated  by  Mohammed  152 

rises  at  Venice    -        -  152 

flourishes  among  the  Sara- 
cens _        -        - 

revived  by  the  Crusades 

aided  by  Henry  II. 

by  John         -        -        - 

by  Henry  VIII.      - 

by  Elizabeth 

by  Discovery  of  America 

Commerce  of  England 
of  the  United  States 


Compass,  the  Mariner's 

Constantinople 

Conveyance,  modes  of 

Copal 

Copper 

Copy-right    - 

Coral 

Coriath 


153 
154 
156 
157 
160 
160 
163 
164 

-  171 
-  157 
157 

-   125 

101 

-  80 

115 

63 

147, 149 


Corks                    -  -            .              95 

Cosmetics        -            -  -            -       54 

Cosmo  de  Medicis  -                         159 

Cotton             -            -  -       39 

Cotton  Thread        -  -            42 
Coxe's  Descent  into  the  Mine  at  Danmora  78 

Crape        -            -  -            -              46 

Crusades        -            -  -            -       154 

Custom-house       -  -           -            141 


Dates        -  -  -  - 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  his  Safety  Lamp 
Deals  -  - 

Delll-ware  -  -        - 

Diamonds        -  - 

and  the  Jew        -        -        - 

thrown  away 

mill  for 

Mines        -  -  - 

value  of  -  - 

Discoveries  by  Portuguese 

by  Spaniards    - 

Distillation  -  -  -        - 

Docks  -  -  -  - 

Drawback        -  -  -  - 

Duties  on  Goods    -  -  - 

Early  Mode  of  Discovering  Land 

East  India  Company 

Ebony  -  -  -  - 

Eddystone  Lighthouse 

Edict  of  Nantes,  Repeal  of  -        - 

Egypt,  Commerce  of   - 

Eider  Down        -  -  . 

Embargo        -  -  -  - 

Emerald 

Ermines        -  .  -  - 

Exchange,  London 

New  York 

Baltimore        -  -        - 


Feathers 

Figs 

Filberts 

Fire-damp 

Firs 

Fish  -       ' 

Fishery,  Cod 

Coral 

Pearl 

Whale 


Flanders 
Flax        . 


20 

89 

93 

57 

65 

66 

66 

66 

67 

68 

161 

163 

36 

137 

142 

141 

156 
169 

99 
139 
170 
145 

52 
142 

68 

50 
136 
137 
137 

52 
19 
20 
89 
93 
13 
14 
63 
64 
105 
160 
42 


INDEX. 


183 


Float  of  Timber 
Florence,  Commerce  of 
Flour  ... 

Formation  of  Coral  Islands    - 
Fulton,  his  account  of  his  invention 
Funds,  the        .  -  - 

Fustic        .  -  -  - 

Furs    -  -  -  - 

Galena  Lead  Mines 

Galleons  >  -  - 

Gama,  Vasco  De,  doubles  the  Cape 

Good  Hope 
Gamboge        -  -  - 

Gauze        .  -  -  - 

Genoa,  Commerce  of 
Gin  -  -  - 

Ginger  ... 

Ginseng    -  -  -  - 

Glass  -  - 

Gloves      -  .  .  - 

Golconda  Diamond  Mines    - 
Gold         .... 

in  North  Carolina 

Goose  Feathers  -      - 

Granite      -  - 

Grapes  -  - 

Gum  Arabic 

Lac  ... 

Gunpowder 

Hanse  Towns 

Hats     -  -  -  - 

Hemp        -  -  . 

Herring  .  .  - 

Hides         -  -  - 

Hock 

Honey        -  -  -  - 

Hops    -  -  -  - 

Horn  -  .  -  . 

Hudson,  Henry 

Hungary  Water      -  -  - 

Idol's  Eye  Stolen 

Idria,  Mines  of        - 

India,  Trade  to  -  - 

Indigo  -  -  -  - 

Insurance  of  Ships 

Invention  of  Lace 

Invoices  ... 

Irish  Linen  -  -  - 

Iron      -  -  -  - 

Isinglass      -  -  -  - 


of 


129 

159 

10 

63 

127 

142 

100 

49 

•  87 
126 

355 

-      102 

46 

.       159 

36 

26 

103 

58 

48 

67 

69 

71 

52 

90 

18 

101 

102 

117 

157 

-  48 
110 

-  16 
113 

-  35 
24 

118 

61 

167,  50 

54 


152 

171 

101 

136 

47 

135 

42 

77 

117 


Ivory 

Jaconots 

Jamestown,  Settlement  of 

Jasper 

Jet        ... 

Jewelry 

Lace      -  -  - 

Lavender  Water 

Lead      -  -  . 

Leather 

Lemons 

Light-houses 

Lignumvitae 

Lime 

Linen    -  -  - 

Liquorice    - 

Lloyd's  Coffee-house    - 

Loadstone,  Polarity  of  the 

Lobsters 

Logwood     - 

London  Exchange 

Docks 


Lorenzo  de  Medicis 

Lothian's  Story        -  -  - 

Lustrings  -  -  . 

Mackerel  -  -  -  . 

Madder        -  -  -  . 

Madeira  Wine    -  -  - 

Mahogany    -  -  -  - 

Mail        .  .  .  - 

Malaga  Raisins        -  -  - 

Manganese  -  -  - 

Manna        -  - 

Maple      -  -  -  - 

Maple  Sugar  -  -  . 

Marble     -  -  -  -         ' 

Mariner's  Compass 

Mercury,  the  Chemical  name  for  quick- 
silver -  -  - 
Merino  Sheep             .            .  - 
Mines,  Cornwall  Tin 

ditto.  Copper  -  - 

Danmora,  Iron 

Dalecarlia        .  -  - 

Idria,  Quicksilver 


Pary's  Mountain,  Copper    - 

Potosi,  SUver 

Mint    -  -  -  - 

Mississippi,  Lead  Mines  of  the 


.     61 

41 

.  167 
69 

-  69 
€2 

-  47 
54 

-  85 
112 

-  19 
139 

-  99 
92 

-  42 
104 

-  136 
156 

17 
100 

-  136 
137 
159 

86 

-  46 

-  15 

101 
.    39 

96 
131 

18 

-  87 
104 

-  96 
23 

'  -   91 
157 

73 

38 
84 
81 
78 
81 
75 
88 
81 
72 
144 
87 


184 


Modes       -           -           -           - 

46 

Port  Wine 

Molasses          -            ... 

24 

Porter 

Monkeys  gather  tea 

28 

Portland  Stone    - 

Mosaics           -            -            -            - 

62 

Post  Office     - 

Mother  of  Pearl    -            -            - 

65 

Potatoes    - 

Mountain  Wine 

33 

Potosi,  Lead  Mines     ■ 

Mules        -           -           -           . 
Musk 

122 

mivpr 

54 

Pottery 

Muslin      -           -           -           - 

41 

Privateers 

Myrrh             .           -           -           - 

102 

Promissory  Notes 
Prunes 

New  York  Exchange 

137 

Public  Debt    - 

Nickel              -           -           .           . 

87 

Nootka  Sound  Fur  Trade 

51 

Quarantine 

Norway  Deals             -            .           - 

93 

Quays,  London 

Nutmegs     -           -           -           - 

25 

Queen's  Ware 
Quicksilver     - 

Oak      -                        -           .          . 

92 

Quincy  Granite    - 

Oil  of  Almonds      .           -           - 

19 

Olives    -           -           -           • 

20 

Rafts 

Opium        -            -            -            - 

103 

Railroads 

Oranges              -            -            - 

-     19 

Raisins 

Ostrich  Feathers     -           -           - 

53 

Resin 

Ottar  of  Roses  -           -           - 

-    54 

Rhubarb 

Oysters       -           -           -           - 

16 

Ribbons    - 
Rice    - 

Pack-horses        -           -           - 

121 

Roman  Commerce 

Paper          -            .            .            - 

113 

Roses,  Ottar  of     - 

Pai'chment    -            -            - 

-  113 

Rosewood 

Patent     -            -            -            - 

144 

Royal  Exchange 

Pearls          -            -            .            - 

63 

Ruby        - 

'  Artificial 

-    65 

Ruggs 

Pearl  Ashes             -            -            - 

120 

Rum 

Peas 

13 

Russia  Duck 

Penn,  William           -           -           - 

167 

Pepper    -            -            -            - 

-    25 

Sables      - 

Perfumes        -            -                         - 

54 

Sago 

Persian  Carpets    -            -            - 

47 

Salmon    - 

Peter  the  Hermit        -            -            - 

154 

Sapphire 

Phoenicians          -            .            - 

146 

Salt 

Pinchbeck      - 

83 

Saracens 

Pine-apple           ... 

20 

Sarcenet  - 

Pine    -           -           -           -            - 

93 

Satin 

Pins         .... 

116 

Shad        -            -      ■ 

Pisa 

154 

Shawls 

Pitch        .            -            -            - 

94 

Sherry  Wine 

Platina            -            -            -            - 

7Q 

Ships 

Police,  Marine    -            -            - 

138 

Shot,  Manufacture  of 

Policy  of  Insurance 
Polish  Wheat 

135 

Shrimps 

9 

Silk 

Polishing  Diamonds  -           -           - 

m 

Silkworms    - 

Porcelain               ... 

55 

Silver 

Pork 

13 

Slate 

33 
32 

91 

131 

17 

87 

72 

57 

143 

135 

19 

143 

143 

137 

57 

73 

90 

129 

124 
18 
94 

104 
46 
10 

149 
54 
99 

136 
69 
47 
36 
42 

50 
12 
14 
69 
24 

152 
46 
46 
14 
39 
33 

125 
86 
16 
43 
44 
71 
91 


INDEX. 


185 


Sledges    - 

Sleighing 

Smuggling 

Soap 

Soapstone    - 

Soles    - 

Solomon's  Commerce 

Spanish  Wines 

Spar  Ornaments  - 

Spermaceti    - 

Spices 

Spirit  of  Wine 

Sponge    - 

Starch 

Steamboats 

Steel  - 

Stocks 

Stock-jobbing 

Stone  ware 

Sugar 

Sulphur  - 

Tamarinds 
Tapestry  - 
Tariff  - 
Tar 
Tea     - 
Teak-tree  - 
Teneriffe  Wine 
Tent  Wine 
Tidewaiters    - 
Tiffany      - 
Tin     - 
Tobacco     - 
Tokay  Wine    - 


124 

Topaz       -           - 

69 

124 

Tortoise  Shell 

61 

141 

Tragacanth           -            -           - 
Turbot 

102 

54 

-       15 

91 

Turkish  Power,  Rise  of    - 

151 

16 

Turpentine      -           -           - 

-       94 

146 

Turtles      -           .           .           - 

17 

33 

58 
107 

Tyre    ...           - 

-     148 

Underwriters          -           -            . 

135 

25 

United  States  Bank      - 

-     136 

.S5 

PiihKr  Drht 

143 
172, 179 

11Q 

127 

Velvets 

-      46 

79 

Venice,  Bank  of    - 

136 

143 

-    152 

83 

xto 
144 

Verdegris               -            -            . 

58 

Vintage  in  France 

-      35 

21 

34 

80 

Virginia  planted 

-     167 

20 

Wabauts    -            -           -           - 

20 

49 

Walnut  Tree    -            -           - 

-       96 

141 

Watches    -            -            -           - 

62 

94 

Whale  Fishery 

.      105 

26 

Oil             ... 

107 

96 

Whalebone     -            .           - 

-      105 

33 

Wheat       - 

9 

33 

Whiskey 

.        37 

141 

Wines      ...           - 

32 

46 

Wool           .           -           -            - 

37 

83 

Wraxall's  descent  into  a  mine 

-        78 

109 

Writmg,  Art  of            -            -  ^ 

-  130 

32 

Zinc           .... 

87 

'W 


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written   in    the  wtjlUknown 

Willi,-  it  tpHches  to  read,  it 

I'liful  mind  such 

Wilhum  l'hi[)ps, 

'  I"  ird.    Italsocou- 

'.    ;i.!iior.i  hiuaie  characters. 


Guiut 

Siirvf 


.>!  or.^  1 


ooUi  sex.; 


md  Political 

:,  ;o!ai.!.,i  to  the 


2yd  pp. 


pcller  and  IJicfiner ;  or,  CLASS- 

■-',  desi^i.ed  to  answer  the  purposes  of  a 

uiui  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  the 

ouitrv  as  a  class-book.     By  Edward 

.21.5  pp. 

tei/sively  usod  in  both  the  public  and 

I'hiladelplija  anJ  New  York.     The 

ds  of  20,(KX)  copies  annually. 

.tin  Tittor;  or,  EXERCISES 

i',  SYN'l'AX.  AND  PROSODY. 

^   Latin   Dictionary*     8vo.  I 

w  iiTered  at  a  price  much  lower  than  ) 
-  naiiufactnrod  m  a  superior  manner.    ; 

'ij:nientof  Ain«'worih'8  : 

vryj  for  the  use  of  granamar-   \ 

i-m  of  Fenmair*  i 

•^asoT  of  Writing  in  i 
'     '  ■  ^O  numbers,   s 


!\iiit;biey, 

I.  :d  various 

IVepos*  for  the  use  of  classical 

,.:l,-iri;rv.      T'J-no    19^  n-. 


itlU   III'IS- 

xaniples, 
By  John 


This  i'^e  now  m 

use  in'  voosition, 

is  uneq;!::  'C- 

Key  to  (inmniere's  Treatistt  on  Snr»  I 
v€ying» 

Boniiy<Astle's  ]*I-    '     .      i       =.     ".     " 
duction  to  Mensura' 
.Tohn  Br  ;nyc-astlp:  ;.- 

'■  '    .Am   tliu    MKisi,    iiupoi'Uiv     iiui..jriiia    in 

JpmesKyan. 

lie  chief  text-book  aov.  this  science 

lU :.   .  .  / 

Ivcy  to  Bonnycastle's  MeAsnration* 
Grjvca  Majora.    2  vols.    Svrl 

This  work  is  particularly  recommMided  to  the  higher 
Greek  classes,  Ps  it  is  tho  only  me'lium  through  wlucu 
extracts  from  the  principal  Gree-V  authurs  run  be  ob- 
tained. The  first  vulume  is  devote'  '  "r--  'le 
second  to  Verse. 
Comly's  Primer* 
Comly.'s    Spelling-Boolt  (  T.alaigcd).     A  | 

New  Sue!  ing^ook,  coiiinded  with  a  view  to  render 

the  arts  of  .Spelling  and  Reading  easy  and  pleasant  10 

children.    By  John  Conily. 
Comly's  Grammar* 

made  easy  to  the  "learher  md 

The  ^eneril  use  of  ti 
in  the  United  States,  i.-^ 
the  cheapest,  and  is  > 
en<»d  teachers,  the  besi  i ..  uui; 


English  Gr^j^mar 

jp:l.    r.yJoir.^l    ""  -  ^ 


